,    (      ., 


\ 


FIRE  PREVENTION 


Ice  and  Fire 

A  Truck    (Hook  and   Ladder),  frozen   in  at  the  fire  in 
the  Equitable  Building,  New  York  City. 


FIRE  PREVENTION 


BY 


EDWARD   F.   CROKER 

EX-CHIEF    OF    THE   FIRE    DEPARTMENT    OF 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


With  Numerous  Illustrations 


NEW  YORK 
DODD   MEAD   &  COMPANY 

1912 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY 

DODD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY 

Published,  October,  1912 


PREFACE 

FOR  twelve  years,  save  for  a  few  months,  Edward 
F.  Croker  was  Chief  of  the  largest  and  best  fire 
department  in  the  world,*  that  of  New  York  City. 
For  fifteen'  years  before  he  attained  the  rank  of 
Chief  he  had  served  in  that  department  in  all  its 
grades.  Such  a  life  story  means  but  one  thing;  an 
experience  with  fire  unique  in  its  richness  and  variety. 
Ex-Chief  Croker  has  probably  seen  more  fire  than 
any  other  man  in  this  country — he  has  undoubtedly 
directed  the  attack  against  this  dangerous  and  versa- 
tile adversary  more  often  than  any  other  living  man. 
To  him  fire-fighting  became  life.  It  was  a  real  battle, 
into  the  fortunes  of  which  he  cast  not  only  his  re- 
markable vitality  and  courage,  but  also  the  grow- 
ing weight  of  his  knowledge.  With  the  whole  force 
of  his  personality  he  studied  his  opponent  and  worst- 
ed him  in  thousands  of  engagements. 

After  he  had  battled  continuously  for  twenty- 
seven  years,  this  rugged  fighter  retired  from  the 
fray,  unvanquished,  only  to  take  his  familiar  enemy 
upon  the  flank,  as  it  were.  He  left  the  business  of 


252704 


PREFACE 

fire  entinguishment  to  give  the  fruit  of  his  experi- 
ence to  fire  prevention.  Through  the  years  the  im- 
portance of  striking  at  the  root  of  the  matter  had 
grown  upon  him.  To  put  out  sucessive  fires  became 
futile;  to  prevent  them  served  a  truer  end. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  no  man  is  better  fitted 
to  speak  for  fire  prevention  than  Ex-Chief  Croker. 
He  has  enlisted  in  its  cause  with  characteristic 
vigor  and  the  energy  with  which  he  formerly  fought 
the  flames. 

The  present  volume  is  one  of  the  results.  It 
might  be  called  his  "  Rules  of  Strategy." 

REGINALD  MC!NTOSH  CLEVELAND. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

INTRODUCTION i 

I.  PREVENTION  OF  FIRE  IN  THE  DWELLING  AND 

SMALL  TOWN    .    * 15 

II.  FURTHER  MEASURES  FOR  PROTECTION  IN  THE 
HOUSE — THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  SMALL 
TOWN 38 

III.  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  SMALL  TOWN — Contiued      50 

IV.  THE  PROTECTION  OF  FACTORIES,  LOFT  BUILD- 

INGS AND  OTHER  LARGE  STRUCTURES     .  69 

V.  PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  IN  LARGE  BUILDINGS  84 

VI.  FURTHER  MEASURES  FOR  PROTECTING  LIFE  94 

VII.  SPRINKLERS  AND  SPRINKLER  SYSTEMS     .     .  109 

VIII.  OTHER  ALARM  DEVICES  IN  BUILDINGS     .     .  133 

IX.  THE  FIRE  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  LARGE  CITY     .  149 

X.  FIRE    DEPARTMENT    OF    A    LARGE   CITY — 

Continued 169 

XI.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  FIRE 

DEPARTMENT  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  DEFECTS  201 
XII.  THE  NATURE  AND  VALUE  OF  HIGH  PRES- 
SURE       216 

XIII.  THE  MODERN  FIRE-BOAT:  ITS  NATURE  AND 

USE 235 

XIV.  HIGH  BUILDINGS  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION  260 
XV.  FIRE  PREVENTION  BUREAUS  AND  FIRE  MAR- 
SHALS       273-" 

XVI.  INCENDIARISM  AND  ARSON 292 

XVII.  LAW  MAKING  AND  FIRE  PREVENTIVE  WORK 

ALONG  LEGAL  AND  OTHER  LINES     .     .     310  *• 
v 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Ice  and  Fire.  A  Truck  (Hook  and  Ladder)  frozen 
at  the  fire  in  the  Equitable  Buildings,  New  York 
City Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Fighting  against  odds.  Wooden  shanties  in  rear  of 
burning  structure  hamper  the  firemen.  Note 
men  on  roof 16 

Interior  of  gutted  Equitable  Building,  Broadway  and 

Cedar    Street    front 36 

A   Powerful   Motor   Combination   Wagon.     This  is 

a  type  of  the  gasolene  pumping-engine     ...       48 

First  Fire  Engine  in  America,  presented  to  Town  of 
Shelburne,  Nova  Scotia,  by  King  George  III.  in 
1774.  Note  buckets  and  leather  hose  .  .  .56 

Interior  of  the  Parker  Building,  Fourth  Avenue,  New 
York.  The  effect  of  great  heat.  Note  poor 
protective  covering  of  columns 88 

Defying  the  cold.     An  engine  at  work  under  trying 

conditions  at  the  Equitable  Building  fire     .      .       96 

The  work  of  the  cold.  A  water  tower  at  the  Equit- 
able. Note  the  motor  tractor  and  the  deck  pipe  106 

A  winter  fire  scene  in  Philadelphia.     Note  the  men 

at  work  on  the  extension  ladder         .      .      .      .      no 

Close  view  of  truck  shown  in  previous  illustration. 
Note  the  operation  of  the  extension  ladder,  and 

the  deep  water  in  the  street 130 

vii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Hard  at  work  at  a  hot  blaze.  The  destructive  car 
barn  fire  at  Madison  Avenue  and  Eighty-sixth 
Street,  New  York  City 142 

Hardships  a  fireman  must  face.     A  fire  in  Minnesota 

with  the  temperature  54°  below  zero     .      .      .      152 

Inside  a  New  York  Fire  House.  The  watchman's 
desk  and  alarm  gongs.  Note  arrangement  board 
on  the  left  and  record  of  day's  alarm  on  extreme 
right 160 

Still    the   principal   weapon   against   the   enemy.     A 

typical  steam  fire  engine         ......     174 

Responding  to  an  alarm.     The  fire  horse  soons  learns 

to  love  the  dash  through  the  streets     .      .      .      186 

Combination  Motor  Chemical  and  Hose  Wagon. 
One  of  the  types  of  apparatus  coming  into  wide- 
spread use  in  small  communities  .  .  .  .  1 86 

A  hot  corner.     Too  close  to  the  blaze  to  leave  the 

horses.     Note  debris  at  walls   around   engine  .      192 

An  oil  tank  on  fire.   The  dense  black  smoke  is  typical 

of    these    dangerous    blazes 2OO 

Interior  of  the  Fire  Alarm  Telegraph  Bureau.  The 
room  in  which  all  Manhattan's  alarms  are  re- 
ceived. Headquarters  of  the  New  York  Fire 
Department,  East  Sixty-seventh  Street  .  .  2IO 

A  boat  line  at  work.  High  pressure  would  have  been 
thrice  welcome  at  this  subborn  lumber  yard  fire 
at  Eleventh  Avenue  and  Twenty-fourth  Street, 
New  York  City.  Notice  condition  at  side  wall 

due    to    heat 218 

viii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

High  pressure  under  test  in  New  York.  The  con- 
centration of  water  shown  here  would  prove  too 
much  for  any  fire 226 

Boat  lines  at  a  water  front  fire,  New  York.  Note 
water  tower  with  deck  pipe  at  work;  also  flames 
raging  in  window  openings  and  streams  affected 
by  wind 230 

The  fire-boat  New  Yorker  at  a  water  front  blaze, 
Whitehall  and  State  Street,  New  York.  Note 
turrets  on  deck  of  pilot  house.  Temperature  3° 
below  zero 236 

A  hot  and  smoky  pier  fire.  Tugs  and  fire-boats  fight- 
ing a  blaze  at  Pier  22,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  .  .  240 

Two  fire-boats  at  work.  Note  how  close  in  they  are 
fighting  the  hot  fire.  River  view  of  fire  shown 
opposite  page  230 246 

Tugs  lending  their  aid  at  the  Lackawanna  Terminal 

fire  in   Hoboken 252 

Swarming  around  a  burning  vessel,  pulled  from  burn- 
ing pier  shown  opposite  page  230.  Note  the 
fighting  tower  in  operation  on  fire-boat  at  right 
picture 258 

Example  of  faulty  construction.  This  column  in  the 
Equitable  Building  cracked  after  losing  its  pro- 
tective shell.  The  metal  at  the  right  hand  edge 
of  the  opening  was  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick  262 

The  effect  of  water  on  a  hot  steel  girder.  The 
buckle  shown  indicates  that  the  whole  structure 
above  has  settled  several  inches.  Such  construc- 
tion causes  loss  of  life  through  unforeseen  col- 
lapse , 268 

Riven  and  weakened.     Note  the  heavy  floor  load     .     278 

ix 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  "  fireproof "  building  after  the  fire.  What  re- 
mained of  the  East  Fourteenth  Street,  New 
York,  barn  when  the  heat  had  done  its  work  .  294 

A  concentrated  attack.  Burning  of  the  Army  and 
Navy  Building,  West  and  Harrison  Street,  New 
(York  City.  Note  water  tower  in  action.  All 
the  streams  from  high  pressure 312 

The  fireman  as  a  farmer.     Fires  in  hay  and  similar 

material  involve  careful  "  spreading  "  and  search     328 


INTRODUCTION 

IF  I  were  to  be  asked  to  name  the  one  great  need, 
the  one  vital  problem  of  the  United  States  to-day, 
I  should  answer  without  hesitation,  Fire  Prevention. 
Years  of  hand-to-hand  conflict  with  fire  are  partly 
responsible  for  this  feeling;  knowledge  of  the  sta- 
tistics of  the  national  fire  waste  has  confirmed  the 
judgment  of  personal  experience.  This  problem 
is  a  basic  one.  Much  of  the  vast  energy  that  is 
daily  and  hourly  spent  in  the  cause  of  this  country's 
progress  will  remain  vain  unless  the  enormous  drain 
upon  its  resources  caused  by  fire  be  materially  les- 
sened. Conservation,  the  high  cost  of  living,  the 
standard  of  living  and  other  great  economic  ques- 
tions and  questions  of  governmental  policy  are 
closely  bound  up  with  the  fire  loss,  more  closely  than 
the  layman  imagines.  What  would  be  condemned 
as  the  most  reckless  extravagance  in  an  individual 
goes  blithely  on  in  the  nation  from  year  to  year, 
growing  with  the  months. 

Lives,  buildings,  treasure,  forests;  all  the  things 
that  go  to  make  up  public  and  private  wealth,  fall 
prey  to  this  terrible  waste.  Those  familiar  with 

i 


:  PREVENTION 


the  records  of  foreign  countries  in  the  matter  of  the 
fire  loss  look  at  America  aghast.  They  willingly 
admit  the  claim  that  it  is  the  world's  leading  builder, 
but  they  unhesitatingly  christen  it  the  world's  chief 
burner  as  well.  This  title  is  deserved,  for  the  an- 
nual fire  loss  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
would  pay  the  entire  budget  and  leave  a  comfort- 
able surplus  in  the  treasury  of  more  than  one  of  the 
leading  nations  of  Europe.  The  money  which  is 
thus  fed  to  the  flames  and  lost  each  year  beyond  the 
possibility  of  recovery  would  build  a  fleet  of  Dread- 
noughts stronger  than  that  of  any  navy  in  the 
world.  The  buildings  destroyed  would  line  both 
sides  of  a  street  a  thousand  miles  long,  or  from 
New  York  to  Chicago.  The  Panama  Canal  could 
be  built  by  the  fire  loss  of  less  than  two  years;  the 
total  interest  bearing  debt  of  the  country  wiped  out 
by  that  of  four. 

For  a  period  of  thirty-three  years,  during  which 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  has  kept 
a  record  of  statistics,  the  fire  waste  reached  the  as- 
tonishing total  of  $4,484,326,831,  while  during  this 
period  conflagrations  involving  losses  of  $500,000 
and  more  amounted  to  $1,500,816,135.  The  sit- 
uation may  be  seen  to  be  still  more  appalling,  when 
it  is  realised  that  this  waste  is  increasing  by  leaps 


INTRODUCTION  3 

and  bounds  in  each  succeeding  year.  Thus,  in  1875 
the  aggregate  property  loss  was  $78,000,000;  in 
1885,  $102,000,000;  in  1895,  $142,000,000;  in 
1905,  $165,000,000;  in  1910,  $214,000,000;  and 
in  1911,  approximately  $217,004,000.  In  the  first 
fifteen  days  of  1912  the  loss  was  $15,000,000,  or 
$1,000,000  a  day,  the  country  over.  In  this  period 
there  was  no  great  conflagration.  In  1910,  fifteen 
hundred  persons  lost  their  lives  and  fifty-five  hundred 
were  injured  through  fire.  The  loss  for  the  United 
States  and  Canada  for  1911  was  $234,337,250. 

The  total  cost  of  fires,  excluding  that  of  forest 
fires  and  marine  losses,  but  including  the  excess  cost 
of  fire  protection  due  to  faulty  construction,  and  the 
excess  premiums  over  insurance  paid,  amounted  in 
1907,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  to  more  than  $456,000,000. 
This  represents  a  tax  on  the  people  exceeding  the 
total  value  of  the  gold,  silver,  copper  and  petroleum 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  that  year.  The 
cost  of  building  construction  in  the  same  year,  the 
country  over,  was  estimated  at  $1,000,000,000. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  nearly  one-half  the  value  of 
all  the  new  buildings  constructed  within  one  year  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  fire  cost  for  that  year  was 
greater  than  the  value  of  the  real  property  and  im- 


4  FIRE    PREVENTION 

provements  in  any  one  of  the  following  States: 
Maine,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  North  Da- 
kota, South  Dakota,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  or  Mon- 
tana. In  1911,  New  York  City,  had  324  fires  for 
every  100,000  inhabitants.  London  had  but  67,  and 
Paris  152. 

Between  1900  and  1910  the  population  of  the 
United  States  increased  73  per  cent. ;  the  fire  loss 
134  per  cent.  Roughly  speaking,  the  aggregate 
loss  each  year  in  this  country  is  a  quarter  of  a  bil- 
lion dollars  in  actual  property  burned  up.  All  that 
is  necessary  to  bring  the  force  of  these  figures  home 
is  the  test  of  comparison  with  other  countries  of  like 
civilisation.  In  round  numbers,  the  per  capita  loss 
in  the  United  States  over  a  period  of  years  has 
been  from  $2.00  to  $3.00 — it  was  $2.62  in  1911 — 
annually,  as  against  $.33  in  the  principal  European 
countries.  Germany  most  nearly  approximated  the 
United  States  in  1910,  but  her  loss  was  none  the  less 
trifling,  being  $.49  per  capita.  The  figures  briefly 
were  these  in  the  year  1911 : 

United   States    $2.62 

England    S3 

France    81 

Germany 21 

Ireland   58 

Italy 3i 

Russia i.i? 

*Austria  08 

*In  several  foreign  countries  but  few  cities  reported  losses, 
however. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

When  cities  of  approximately  similar  population 
are  compared,  this  great  debit  on  the  side  of  the 
United  States  is  likewise  found.  Thus,  in  1910, 
thirteen  of  Germany's  largest  cities,  with  a  combined 
population  of  5,500,000,  had  a  fire  loss  of  $1,067,- 
205,  while  five  American  cities,  numbering  100,000 
less,  had  a  loss  of  nearly  $15,000,000.  Although 
the  years  are  not  the  same,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  correct  figures,  the  European  losses  for  1904 
may  be  compared  with  justice  with  those  of  the 
United  States  for  1907.  In  such  a  comparison  we 
find  that  Paris,  with  a  population  of  2,714,000,  had 
a  fire  loss  of  $1,266,000,  or  a  loss  per  capita  of 
$.47,  while  Chicago,  with  a  population  of  2,049,- 
ooo,  had  a  loss  of  $3,937,000,  or  a  per  capita  loss 
of  $1.34.  Again,  Frankfort,  Germany,  with  a 
.  population  of  324,000,  had  a  per  capita  loss  of 
$.31,  while  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  with  21,000  more 
souls,  the  loss  for  each  inhabitant  was  $5.70.  That 
city  has  lost  by  fire,  $2,092  worth  of  property  every 
day  for  fifty-eight  years,  or  a  total  of  $44,685,977. 
London  in  1911,  had  4,455  fires,  1,250  more  than 
in  1910,  but  her  loss  was  only  one-fifth  that  of  New 
York,  while  that  of  Paris  was  one-ninth.  Chicago 
in  the  single  month  of  January,  1912,  had  2,085 
fires  and  her  fire  loss  for  the  past  five  years  has  been 


6  FIRE    PREVENTION 

forty-seven  times  that  of  Berlin.  Toronto  in  1911 
had  a  loss  of  $432,164,  or  $172,420  more  than  in 
1910.  No  foreign  city  had  in  1911  a  per  capita 
loss  approaching  $5,  while  thirty-four  cities  in  this 
country  were  in  this  class,  nine  had  a  loss  greater 
than  $10,  and  five  greater  than  $15  per  capita. 

One  of  the  conditions  in  European  countries  that 
operates  to  effect  a  lower  fire  burden  than  that  of 
the  United  States  is  the  far  more  widespread  use 
of  noncombustible  materials,  due  to  the  high  cost  of 
wood.  Another  and  lesser,  but  still  vital,  reason 
is  the  tangible  influence  of  their  older  civilisation, 
which  makes  them  more  saving  and  more  cautious 
than  we  have  yet  become.  Moreover,  a  well  or- 
ganised system  of  fire  marshals  exists  in  nearly 
every  European  city,  and  the  causes  of  all  fires  are 
investigated.  There  a  fire  is  considered  a  crime 
and  the  guilty  are  punished,  which  results  in  an  in- 
creased sense  of  individual  responsibilty.  But  even 
with  full  allowance  for  such  fundamental  differences 
between  the  countries,  it  must  be  apparent  to  the 
most  casual  observer  that  the  fire  loss  in  this  coun- 
try, seven  or  eight  times  that  of  the  average  Euro- 
pean country  on  the  scale,  is  enormously  and  even 
criminally  greater  than  it  should  be.  It  has  been 
my  observation,  during  twenty-seven  years  of  active 


INTRODUCTION  7 

experience,  that  the  majority  of  fires  arise  from 
causes  which  are  preventable;  in  fact,  it  may^be  said 
that  every  fire  is  preventable. 

The  subject  of  fire  fighting  is  vastly  less  impor- 
tant than  that  of  fire  prevention.  A  further  com- 
parison with  Europe  on  this  point  makes  it  clear 
that  the  efficiency  of  the  fire  departments  in  Euro- 
pean cities  cannot  be  considered  an  operating  cause 
in  their  lower  fire  loss.  In  many  of  the  larger 
cities  of  the  Old  World  the  fire  departments  seem 
ridiculously  inadequate  as  compared  with  those  of 
American  cities.  Thus  London's  department  has 
but  1,380  officers  and  men,  while  that  of  New  York 
has  more  than  4,000.  London  has  forty  pieces  of 
motor  apparatus. 

What  then  is  to  be  done  about  this  waste  which 
has  become  a  stigma  upon  our  nation? 

In  the  first  place,  the  importance  of  preventive 
measures  must  be  fully  understood.  A  conflagra- 
tion may  be  checked  after  a  greater  or  less  loss  by 
the  skilful  or  heroic  work  of  a  fire  department,  but 
if  it  was  caused  by  conditions  of  improper  building 
or  imperfect  watchfulness,  it  may  be  repeated  the 
very  next  day. 

If  we  are  to  improve  these  conditions,  we  must 
realize  that  "  fireproof "  is  a  misnomer.  There 


8  FIRE   PREVENTION 

is  but  one  principle  to  fireproof  construction,  whether 
it  be  applied  to  dwellings  or  hotels,  lofts,  offices 
or  factories;  buildings  to  be  fireproof  must  be  con- 
structed on  a  plan  and  in  a  method  different  from 
that  to  which  precedent  has  accustomed  us.  Com- 
bustible and  semi-combustible  materials  must  be  ab- 
solutely eliminated.  If  I  had  my  way  about  it,  I 
would  not  permit  a  piece  of  wood  as  big  as  a  man's 
finger  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  any  build- 
ing in  the  United  States  which  had  a  ground  area 
larger  than  25  x  50  feet  and  was  more  than  three 
stories  in  height.  The  law  should  not  permit  the 
use  of  wood  in  any  so-called  fireproof  building. 
Floors,  window-frames,  doors  and  casings  burn 
and  bring  about  a  condition  in  which  other  things 
will  burn.  Wooden  trim  and  bases  burn.  Every- 
thing that  is  of  wood  is  a  menace  and  a  peril. 

At  the  present  time  when  so  much  attention  is 
being  given  to  the  conservation  of  natural  resources 
and  of  all  the  sources  of  wealth,  it  seems  most 
strange  that  so  little  should  have  been  done  in  the 
matter  of  fire  protection  and  prevention.  It  is  my 
conviction  that  the  Government  should  establish  a 
department  properly  equipped  with  laboratories, 
whose  business  it  should  be  to  test  and  classify  the 
various  materials  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
buildings,  just  as  the  ingredients  of  an  article  of  con- 


INTRODUCTION  9 

sumption  are  tested  under  the  Pure  Food  Law.  By 
this  means  a  sane  schedule  of  standards  of  known 
safety  and  the  basis  for  laws  necessary  to  enforce 
these  standards  might  readily  be  produced,  and  by 
it  also  the  present  reckless  destruction  of  property 
and  equally  reckless  exposure  of  life  could  in  great 
measure  be  eliminated. 

Under  the  majority  of  the  present  building  codes, 
the  so-called  fireproof  buildings  are  fireproof  only 
in  the  sense  that  a  conflagration  does  not  seriously 
damage  the  structure.  A  fire  may  rage  from  room 
to  room  and  floor  to  floor,  partitions  and  all  interior 
fittings  may  be  charred  and  consumed,  the  contents 
may  be  destroyed,  but  the  four  walls  and  frame 
work,  the  organic  structure  of  the  building,  usually 
come  through  the  ordeal  intact.  It  is  the  damage 
to  the  contents  far  more  than  to  the  buildings  them- 
selves, that  makes  the  fire  loss  of  the  United  States 
so  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  amount  that  is  spent 
for  new  construction.  In  the  matter  of  new  laws, 
therefore,  it  is  not  so  much  the  buildings  which 
should  receive  added  protection,  but  the  contents 
and  the  inmates  of  them.  We  must  add  to  the 
term  "  fireproof  "  the  terms  "  death  proof  "  and 
"conflagration  proof." 

Another  element  which  bears  upon  this  aspect  of 
the  subject  is  that  under  the  present  conditions  of 


io  FIRE    PREVENTION 

employment,  and  also  very  frequently  under  the 
conditions  of  residence  in  large  cities,  great  num- 
bers of  people  are  housed  without  the  protection 
which  proper  fire-escapes  and  means  of  exit  would 
afford.  The  conversion  of  buildings  from  the  use 
for  which  they  were  originally  designed  to  other 
uses,  carelessness,  heedlessness  and  greed  all  make 
for  a  condition  in  which  the  lives  of  millions  of 
persons  are  jeopardised,  either  during  their  work- 
ing hours  or  their  hours  at  home,  or  both.  Future 
construction  must  be  of  a  type  which  will  make  it  un- 
necessary for  all  the  persons  in  the  building  or  even 
on  the  floor  on  which  the  fire  starts,  to  make  an  in- 
stantaneous exit  in  order  to  save  their  lives. 

Means  of  safety,  both  for  persons  and  property, 
must  be  secured  by  making  impossible  the  instant 
conversion  of  elevator  shafts  and  stairways  into 
flues  for  the  flames,  and  by  making  impossible  the 
rapid  spread  of  flames  from  room  to  room  and 
floor  to  floor.  No  policy  could  be  less  advanta- 
geous, more  expensive  or  more  futile  than  that  which 
is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  safety  of  workers 
in  a  factory  or  loft  building,  for  instance,  can  best 
be  secured  by  providing  means  of  rapid  escape. 
The  cost  of  fire-escapes  which  would  really  make 
such  an  escape  practical  would  be  almost  prohibi- 


INTRODUCTION  n 

tive,even  if,  as  is  doubtful  in  many  cases,  they  could 
be  installed  at  all. 

I  do  not  by  any  means  intend  to  imply  that  proper 
escapes  and  exits  are  not  sadly  needed,  for  anyone 
who  is  familiar  with  the  situation  at  present  in  our 
cities  and  towns,  knows  to  the  contrary.  I  merely 
mean  that  this  is  a  wrong  end  at  which  to  begin  a 
campaign  for  improved  conditions.  Both  persons 
and  property  should  be  afforded  protection  in  a  build- 
ing by  so  constructing  it  that  the  flames  may  be  con- 
fined to  a  limited  area  within  which  to  burn  them- 
selves out,  consuming  only  that  part  of  the  contents 
which  cannot  be  removed  to  safety  behind  doors 
and  partitions  which  will  resist  fire  as  effectively 
as  the  walls  themselves. 

One  lesson  which  many  fires  of  recent  years  have 
brought  home,  is  the  knowledge  that  no  building  is 
more  fireproof  than  are  its  doors  and  windows. 
They  are  often  the  vulnerable  points.  How  often 
is  it  true  that  hotels  and  theatres,  apartment  build- 
ings and  others  in  which  large  numbers  of  persons 
congregate,  have  been  deemed  entirely  fireproof, 
until  a  fire,  small  in  origin,  has  thus  demonstrated 
that  they  were  indeed  merely  fire  traps  and  ended  too 
often  in  a  holocaust  which  has  shocked  the  commu- 
nity or  the  country.  We  recover  altogether  too 


12  FIRE    PREVENTION 

easily  from  these  shocks,  which  pass  as  nine-days 
wonders,  and  it  is  more  than  time  that  a  proper 
measure  of  attention  was  given  to  this  very  largely 
preventable  waste. 

In  the  present  volume,  I  shall  take  up  the  great 
subject  of  keeping  down  the  fire  waste  from  many 
angles  and  attempt  to  describe  from  experience 
those  things  which  are  vitally  necessary  to  reduce 
the  fire  loss.  In  the  course  of  this  work,  I  shall 
discuss  both  the  putting  out  of  fire  and  the  preven- 
tion of  it,  but  important  as  it  is  that  every  commu- 
nity in  the  country  should  possess  an  efficacious  fire- 
fighting  force — whether  it  be  the  volunteer  depart- 
ment of  the  hairnet  or  the  complicated  organisation 
of  the  metropolis — it  is  even  more  important,  in  my 
estimation,  that  those  things  should  be  done  which 
will  prevent  the  outbreak  of  fires  and  enable  them  to 
be  extinguished  at  the  start. 

Some  of  the  many  things  which  will  lead  to  such 
a  condition  may  be  here  enumerated.  Every  door 
and  window,  no  matter  how  temporary,  must  be 
fireproof — not  slow-burning,  but  actually  fireproof. 
Every  building  should  have  straight  and  broad 
stairways  of  the  same  fireproof  construction.  The 
height  of  buildings  should  be  limited.  The  build- 
ings used  for  mercantile  or  manufacturing  pur- 


INTRODUCTION  13 

poses,  and  indeed  all  in  which  persons  congregate, 
should  be  equipped  with  automatic  devices  of  one 
sort  or  another,  both  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
alarm  and  of  extinguishing  the  fire  in  its  incipiency. 
Frame  buildings  should  be  prohibited  in  all  districts 
which  are  congested,  and  indeed  modern  methods 
of  fireproof  construction  as  applied  to  the  small 
house  would  make  it  seem  possible  to  eliminate 
frame  construction,  even  in  rural  and  sparsely  set- 
tled districts. 

Persons  who  work  in  factories,  warehouses  and 
lofts,  school  children  and  the  inmates  of  institutions 
should  receive  thorough  drilling,  so  that  the  great- 
est factor  in  our  present  death  roll  from  fire, — 
panic — may  be  eradicated.  Simple  methods  of  ex- 
tinguishment at  the  start  should  also  be  drilled  into 
operatives  and  workers,  for  by  this  means  many  a 
disastrous  fire  can  be  prevented. 

Rubbish  should  be  properly  cared  for  by  muni- 
cipal or  private  provision.  Careless  smoking  should 
be  made  so  unpleasant  for  the  smokers  by  the  im- 
position of  drastic  penalties  that  it  would  become 
impossible.  Effective  fire  departments  and  con- 
stant watchfulness  to  improve  departments  should 
be  the  aim  and  pride  of  all  towns  and  cities,  and 
modern  methods  of  fire  extinguishment  should  be 


14  FIRE    PREVENTION 

introduced  as  the  very  best  form  of  insurance 
against  unnecessary  loss.  In  the  matter  of  fire  de- 
partments, great  strides  have  been  made  during  the 
past  three  decades  and  great  strides  are  being  made 
each  year,  but  this  happy  condition  does  not  apply 
to  the  more  simple  and  basic  matter  of  prevention, 
which,  if  properly  carried  out,  would  render  the  de- 
partments well-nigh  idle. 

The  fighting  of  many  fires  and  the  study  of  the 
subjects  both  of  fire  extinguishment  and  fire  pre- 
vention, during  my  years  of  connection  with  the  New 
York  Fire  Department  have  led  me  to  set  down  the 
recommendations  and  plans  which  will  be  found  in 
the  chapters  of  this  book,  and  it  is  my  sincere  hope 
that  by  the  adoption  of  at  least  some  of  them  in 
this  great  country,  the  annual  sacrifice  of  life  and 
property  to  the  most  destructive  of  the  elements 
may  be  somewhat  reduced. 


CHAPTER   I 

PREVENTION  OF  FIRE  IN  THE  DWELLING  AND 
SMALL  TOWN 

IT  seems  obvious  that  the  discussion  of  the  im- 
portant subject  of  fire  prevention  should  begin  at  the. 
beginning  and  should,  in  consequence,  devote  itself 
first  to  the  home  in  which  the  individual  lives. 
Moreover,  although  the  great  fires  of  this  country 
have  occurred,  for  the  most  part,  in  places  of  manu- 
facture, theatres  and  large  public  buildings  of  one 
or  another  kind,  nevertheless  the  majority  of  all 
the  fires  and  a  very  large  portion  of  the  fire  loss  be- 
long to  the  dwelling  house. 

There  is  a  fundamental  mistake  which  has  been 
the  cause  of  much  loss  and  suffering  in  this  country, 
and  which  arises  from  a  wrong  idea  as  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  small  house.  It  may  be  said  that 
there  are  some  twelve  million  buildings  in  the  United 
States,  and  of  this  number  probably  eleven  millions 
have  been  built  in  entire  disregard  of  the  combustible 
nature  of  their  materials.  For  the  most  part,  they 
have  been  built  of  white  and  yellow  pine,  two  of  the 

15 


16  FIRE    PREVENTION 

woods  which  burn  most  readily,  and  even  when  the 
walls  are  of  brick  or  stone,  the  combustible  lining 
materials  burn  as  freely  as  if  the  whole  structure 
were  of  wood.  The  case  of  New  Orleans  may  be 
taken  as  typical  of  many  cities.  There,  in  1911, 
90  fires  occurred  in  brick  or  stone  buildings,  445  in 
wooden  buildings  and  41  in  buildings  of  other 
character. 

It  is  highly  unfortunate  that  so  many  houses  in 
this  country,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  have 
shingle  roofs,  which  form  one  of  the  greatest  dan- 
gers for  fire  that  can  be  imagined.  Indeed,  it  seems 
almost  as  if  the  shingle  roof  had  been  designed  for 
the  purpose  of  fostering  and  concealing  a  spark 
which  will  later  burst  out  into  flames.  A  recent 
conflagration  in  Columbus,  Ga.,  is  attributed  to 
this  cause.  At  one  time  several  hundred  roofs 
were  in  flames;  the  damage  was  $250,000.  Both 
the  errors  of  building  houses  of  wood  and  other  in- 
flammable material  and  roofs  of  shingles  arise  from 
an  idea  of  false  economy.  There  has  doubtless 
been  some  excuse  for  the  construction  of  such 
houses  in  the  past,  before  the  era  of  modern 
methods  of  construction  and  the  discovery  of  a  num- 
ber of  most  useful  building  materials.  The  idea 
is  now  nursed  and  favoured  by  many  builders  who 


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FIRE   IN   THE   DWELLING      17 

have  a  selfish  interest  in  the  matter  and  believe  that 
they  can  obtain  greater  profits  by  recommending  a 
wooden  type  of  construction.  Experiments  have 
shown,  however,  that  a  number  of  types  far  prefer- 
able to  the  typical  frame  house,  can  be  built  at  a  cost 
but  slightly  greater,  and  will  prove  in  the  long  run 
much  more  truly  economical  because  of  lower  in- 
surance rates  and  decreased  loss. 

A  special  committee  of  the  Boston  Chamber  of 
Commerce  recently  undertook  the  study  of  this  sub- 
ject, and  the  result  of  its  investigation  was  greatly 
in  favour  of  fireproof  or  semi-fireproof  materials 
for  the  construction  of  small  houses.  Thus  they 
found  that  the  average  estimate  for  a  frame  build- 
ing of  certain  type — an  eight-room  house  of  good 
design  and  arrangement,  of  which  a  model  had  ac- 
tually been  built  near  Boston  and  whose  type  ap- 
proximated that  of  dozens  of  houses  which  are  now 
being  erected  throughout  the  East — was  $6,759.95. 
The  average  increased  cost  for  other  types  was 
found  to  be  as  follows : 


For  a  frame  building  covered  with  shingles,  1.61%; 

For  stucco  on  frame,  2.92%; 

For  brick  veneer  on  studding,  5.83%; 

For  stucco  on  hollow  block,  6.34%; 

For  brick  veneer  on  boarding,  6.95% 

For  10"  brick  wall,  hollow,  9.16%; 

And  for  brick  veneer  on  hollow  block,  10.77%. 


i8  FIRE   PREVENTION 

During  the  investigation  it  was  also  found  that 
the  owners  of  a  special  form  of  poured  concrete  had 
built  a  six-room  house  at  approximately  the  same 
cost  as  the  cheapest  frame  construction,  or  about 
15  per  cent,  less  than  brick  wall  construction. 

At  an  outside  estimate,  second-class,  or  fire-re- 
sistant, construction  for  small  houses  does  not  in- 
volve a  cost  of  more  than  15  per  cent,  more  than 
third-class  or  highly  combustible  construction. 

A  well-known  architect  *  has  made  a  careful  in- 
vestigation of  practical  costs  on  a  $10,000  house, 
which  he  has  summarized  as  follows: 

"  The  exterior  walls  are  of  brick  eight  inches 
thick,  with  wooden  furring  strips  against  the  inner 
surface  of  which  the  lath  and  plaster  are  applied. 
The  cost  of  this  brick  work,  including  the  necessary 
furring  and  the  somewhat  more  expensive  window 
frames  and  finish  required,  would  be  about  $1,200. 
The  exterior  frames,  if  built  of  wood,  with  shingles 
or  clapboards,  would  cost  about  $600  less,  and  if  in 
frame  with  metal  lathing  and  cement  plaster,  about 
$500  less.  In  other  words,  if  the  total  cost  of  the 
house  in  brick  is  $10,000,  the  saving  in  wood  would 
be  6  per  cent,  and  in  cement  plaster  5  per  cent. 

The  figures  here  given  are  based  on  carefully 

*  Mr.  William  D.  Austin. 


FIRE    IN    THE   DWELLING       19 

made  estimates  which  were  obtained  from  reputable 
contractors  and,  generally  speaking,  represent  the 
cost  of  wood,  stucco  and  brick  walls." 

A  firm  of  builders  in  Ohio  who  have  been  en- 
gaged for  fifteen  years  in  building  moderate  sized 
houses  for  sale,  reported  to  this  Boston  committee : 

"  We  have  built  about  600  houses  in  the  city  of 
Columbus.  The  first  year  we  built  entirely  of  frame, 
the  second  year  about  half  brick  and  half  frame,  and 
then  we  figured  out  the  cost  between  the  brick  and 
the  frame  houses,  and  we  found  that  the  actual  dif- 
ference did  not  exceed  $400  on  a  $5,000  house,  or 
about  8  per  cent,  more  for  brick  than  for  frame. 
We  built  most  of  our  houses  with  a  9-inch  wall  and 
a  i -inch  air  space,  tying  the  two  walls  together  with 
metal  ties  and  furring,  lathing  and  plastering  on  the 
inside.  Taking  the  saving  in  insurance,  heating 
and  painting  on  the  brick  house,  we  have  found  that 
there  was  really  no  difference  in  the  cost  of  the 
houses  at  the  end  of  a  few  years,  and  we  now  build 
brick  houses  almost  altogether.  When  we  come  to 
sell  the  house,  we  find  that  we  can  always  get  about 
$  1,000  more  for  the  brick  house  than  for  the  frame 
house  on  account  of  the  beuaty,  durability  and  econ- 
omy, which  always  seem  to  speak  for  themselves. 
We  have  found  that  it  takes  33  1-3  per  cent,  more 


20  FIRE   PREVENTION 

fuel  to  heat  a  frame  house  than  it  does  for  one  of 
brick." 

The  continued  construction  of  frame  houses 
would,  therefore,  seem  to  be  a  mistake,  even  from 
the  point  of  view  of  cost,  when  the  expenses  of  de- 
preciation and  upkeep  are  considered.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  popular  shingle  roof.  For  this  pur- 
pose other  materials,  such  as  tile,  slate  or  one  of 
the  many  fireproof  roofings,  can  be  substituted  for 
shingles  at  but  little  increase  in  expense  and  with 
a  great  increase  in  wearing  qualities. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  fire  danger,  there  is  no 
need  for  argument  as  to  the  advantages  of  second- 
class  over  third-class  construction,  and  it  is  my  belief 
that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  first-class  con- 
struction, by  which  is  meant  construction  as  nearly 
fireproof  as  is  humanly  possible,  will  be  within  the 
range  of  the  initial  cost  of  small  houses.  If  the 
danger  to  life  and  property  involved  in  wood  con- 
struction for  the  small  detached  dwelling  is  great, 
the  danger  of  such  antiquated  construction  for  tene- 
ments and  the  poorer  class  of  apartment  houses, 
such  as  are  frequently  found  in  country  towns  and 
small  cities,  is  even  greater.  In  such  buildings  it  is 
a  positive  menace  to  any  community,  and  should  be 
rigorously  proscribed  by  law. 


FIRE   IN   THE   DWELLING      21 

Of  course,  in  the  large  cities,  wooden  construc- 
tion is  now  forbidden  in  all  congested  areas.  In 
New  York  this  has  been  the  case  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  no  new  buildings  of  wood  have  been  per- 
mitted recently  within  the  more  congested  boroughs. 
The  designation  "  fire  limits ''  is  used  in  New 
York  to  mark  that  district  within  which  no  frame 
structure  may  be  built.  In  Manhattan  it  includes 
all  of  the  portion  south  of  i65th  Street  and  the 
Harlem  River;  in  the  Bronx,  it  includes  the  district 
which  is  roughly  bounded  by  the  most  northerly 
point  of  Manhattan;  in  Brooklyn  it  is  irregular,  but 
a  large  portion  of  the  borough  is  included,  while 
the  same  is  true  of  Queens.  I  have  observed  that 
in  portions  of  Manhattan  outside  the  fire  limits, 
owners  do  not  take  advantage  of  the  lack  of  restric- 
tion, but  build  of  brick,  not  of  wood. 

In  Philadelphia,  no  wooden  structure  is  permit- 
ted, except  in  portions  of  the  2ist,  27th  and  38th 
wards,  within  the  entire  city  limits.  Even  there, 
such  buildings  may  not  be  constructed  unless  the  ap- 
plicant shall  have  the  consent  of  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  adjoining  property  owners  on  both  sides  of 
the  street,  and  it  is  not  allowable  to  enlarge  a  frame 
building,  to  remove  any  of  it  to  an  adjoining  lot,  or 
to  repair  or  reconstruct  any  such  building  which  has 


22  FIRE    PREVENTION 

been  damaged  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  its  original 
value.  No  wooden  building  may  exceed  forty-five 
feet  in  height,  and  all  must  be  separated  by  at  least 
three  feet  or  by  brick  walls.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
is  rare  to  find  wooden  houses  being  constructed  in  the 
city  of  Ben  Franklin,  who  was  ahead  of  his  time  in 
advising  against  this  kind  of  construction.  In  a 
letter  written  about  1735,  he  advised  the  passage 
of  a  law  which  would  forbid  too  shallow  hearths 
and  the  putting  of  wooden  mouldings  on  each  side 
of  the  fireplace. 

Pittsburg  has  recently  awakened  to  its  danger 
from  the  presence  of  third-class  buildings,  which 
are  huddled  in  great  numbers  in  the  more  densely 
built-up  portions  of  the  city  and  are  a  relic  of  less 
enlightened  times. 

In  1909,  Chicago,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  was  the  greatest 
offender  in  the  matter  of  wooden  buildings,  among 
the  cities  of  the  country,  the  cost  of  such  buildings 
there  amounting  to  a  total  of  $13,438,880.  San 
Francisco  was  second,  with  a  total  of  $12,000,000. 
Philadelphia  had  only  twenty-four  new  wooden 
buildings,  representing  a  total  cost  of  $38,000,  while 
Reading,  Pa.,  was  the  only  city  that  reported  no 
wooden  buildings  in  that  year. 


FIRE    IN   THE   DWELLING      23 

Even  since  1909  there  has  been  an  awakening 
among  the  larger  cities  to  the  increased  necessity 
of  proper  construction,  and  more  and  more  drastic 
laws  to  restrict  improper  building  are  to  be  found 
among  the  progressive  municipalities.  I  assume, 
therefore,  that  this  evil  is  being  eradicated  with 
more  or  less  vigour,  but  I  cannot  put  too  much  stress 
upon  the  importance  of  the  subject  or  recommend 
too  strongly  the  careful  consideration  of  the  fire 
hazard  to  all  who  live  in  moderate-sized  dwellings. 

Whatever  be  the  construction  of  a  home,  there 
are  certain  preventive  measures  which  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  municipality  to  enforce.  For  the  most 
part,  they  are  very  simple  and  inexpensive,  and 
would  be  applied  to  many  homes  in  which  they  are 
now  neglected  were  it  not  for  the  peculiar  feeling 
which  so  many  persons  have,  that  takes  form  in  the 
phrase,  "  A  fire  will  never  happen  to  me."  A  great 
many  fires  in  private  houses,  especially  those  at 
some  distance  from  fire  protection,  gain  great  head- 
way because  those  present  at  the  start  do  not  know 
how  to  put  out  little  blazes  at  their  inception.  The 
first  thought  of  these  persons  is  to  run  out  and  cry 
the  alarm,  but,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  while  they 
are  thus  engaged,  a  draft  from  some  door  or  win- 
dow which  they  have  left  open  transforms  the  in- 


24  FIRE    PREVENTION 

significant  blaze  into  a  real  fire,  so  that  when  the 
fire  fighters  arrive,  they  find  a  hard  task  confronting 
them. 

In  most  private  houses,  fires  are  caused  by  care- 
lessness or  ignorance,  and  by  disregard  of  the  axiom 
that  all  fires  are  the  same  size  at  the  start.  Matches 
of  the  wrong  kind  or  matches  carelessly  thrown 
about  are  the  cause  of  an  incredible  number  of 
fires.  No  match  should  be  permitted  by  law  which 
will  strike  elsewhere  than  on  the  box,  and  in  every 
house  where  matches  are  used  for  starting  stoves, 
lighting  gas  jets,  smoking,  or  any  other  purpose, 
there  should  be  proper  metal  receptacles  in  which 
the  burnt  match  should  invariably  be  deposited. 
Those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  records  of  fire- 
fighting  or  have  not  had  access  to  the  Fire  Mar- 
shal's reports  in  their  city  or  town,  would  be  as- 
tonished to  learn  of  the  percentage  of  fires  which 
have  been  caused  by  rats  nibbling  so-called  par- 
lour matches. 

Cleanliness  is  a  first  requisite  in  guarding  against 
fires,  as  there  is  nothing  more  dangerous  than  ac- 
cumulated rubbish  of  any  sort,  enclosed  in  a  cellar 
or  garret,  either  of  which  is  usually  considered  a 
handy  place  to  stow  away  discarded  articles.  Fur- 
naces and  stoves  are  often  improperly  protected. 
They  should  be  carefully  guarded  by  asbestos  or 


FIRE    IN    THE    DWELLING      25 

metal  covering  placed  over  any  adjacent  or  nearby 
woodwork.  If  gas  lights  are  used,  they  should  not 
be  placed  near  windows  where  lace  curtains  or  other 
inflammable  material  can  come  in  contact  with  the 
flame.  Moreover,  gas  brackets  should,  in  most 
cases,  be  fixed  and  not  swinging,  as  many  a  serious 
fire  has  resulted  from  a  careless  push  against  a 
movable  bracket  which  has  brought  the  flames  next 
to  a  window  curtain. 

If  kerosene  lamps  are  used,  they  should  be  of  the 
safety  type,  which  will  not  explode  in  case  the  lamp 
is  knocked  off  the  table  in  any  manner,  but  will 
immediately  go  out.  Such  a  lamp  is  but  little 
more  expensive  than  one  of  the  other  and  danger- 
ous type,  and  can  be  easily  obta'ned.  In  case  there 
are  electric  lights  in  the  house,  they  should  be 
properly  placed  in  compliance  with  the  regulations 
of  the  local  authorities  or  Board  of  Underwriters, 
as  faulty  insulation  and  improper  wiring  cause  a 
large  percentage  of  each  year's  fires.  Wax  tapers 
and  candles  should  be  entirely  tabooed.  Not  one 
person  in  ten  gives  any  thought  to  these  everyday 
matters  of  how  his  house  is  lighted,  and  an  even 
smaller  proportion  know  anything  about  the  wiring 
in  their  houses  provided  they  be  lighted  with  elec* 
tricity. 

Defective  flues  are  the  cause  of  a  great  many 


26  FIRE    PREVENTION 

fires.  In  the  city  of  Rochester,  for  instance,  ac- 
cording to  a  bulletin  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
("The  Prevention  of  Fire")  there  were  89  fires 
during  the  months  of  January  and  February,  1911. 
Of  these,  15  were  caused  by  overheated  chimneys. 
In  New  Orleans  there  were  31  fires  from  this  cause 
in  1911.  This  type  of  blaze  arises  frequently  from 
faulty  construction  of  the  house  by  which  some  of 
the  weight  is  borne  by  the  chimney.  In  cases  of  this 
kind,  when  the  building  settles,  the  flue  develops 
cracks  which  easily  communicate  fires  to  the  sur- 
rounding structure.  Most  flues  have  an  inside  meas- 
urement of  four  inches.  They  should  measure  eight 
inches,  as  in  this  case  the  bricks  may  be  interlocked, 
whereas  a  4-inch  flue  takes  in  the  width  of  but  one 
brick.  Before  the  season  when  fires  are  lighted 
each  year,  inspection  of  flues  and  fireplaces  should 
be  a  portion  of  the  regular  household  routine. 

Inflammable  material  should  not  be  left  near  a 
stove  or  furnace.  Waste  paper  kept  near  a  kitchen 
range  is  very  frequently  a  source  of  trouble.  Again, 
hot  ashes  are  responsible  for  numerous  fires.  All 
ashes  and  clinkers  should  be  kept  in  a  closed  metal 
receptacle  and  carried  away  to  a  point  where  they 
can  be  dumped  without  danger  to  surrounding 
property.  Stovepipes  should  never  be  allowed  to 


FIRE   IN   THE   DWELLING      27 

run  through  the  roofs  or  sides  of  buildings,  and 
though  this  practice  in  confined,  of  course,  to  the 
cheapest  type  of  structure,  it  has  nevertheless  caused 
a  number  of  serious  fires. 

More  trouble  comes  from  spontaneous  combus- 
tion in  houses  than  persons  ordinarily  realise. 
Oily  rags  are  left  in  wooden  boxes,  or  carelessly 
thrown  down  in  different  parts  of  a  house,  and  de- 
velop heat  which  frequently  increases  to  the  point 
of  combustion.  Workmen  in  a  house  are  not  in- 
frequently the  first  cause  of  fires  of  this  kind,  as  they 
leave  their  rags  or  waste  or  their  working  clothes, 
soaked  with  oil,  in  dangerous  places.  Articles  of 
this  nature  should  be  placed  outdoors  immediately 
after  use,  as  spontaneous  combustion  is  often  to  be 
feared  from  them  after  twenty-four  hours. 

Although  fire  flees  before  water,  it  does  not  stand 
in  dread  of  dampness,  and  for  this  reason  spontane- 
ous combustion  will  arise  in  the  last  place  one  would 
expect  to  find  it,  namely,  a  collection  of  wet  rags, 
or  sometimes  in  damp  excelsior  which  has  been  left 
in  a  cellar. 

Of  course,  kerosene  oil  and  cleaning  oils  should 
be  kept  in  metal  cans,  away  from  heat.  Equally  of 
course,  gasolene,  benzine,  naphtha,  alcohol,  and 
other  highly  inflammable  fluids  which  enter  into  the 


28  FIRE    PREVENTION 

domestic  economy,  should  be  handled  with  the 
greatest  care.  This  is  by  no  means  the  case  in 
practice,  however.  Cleaning  and  dyeing  establish- 
ments use  great  quantities  of  fluids  of  this  nature, 
and  though  they  may  keep  their  main  supply  in 
proper  receptacles,  it  is  frequently  the  case  that 
from  twenty  to  thirty  gallons  will  be  exposed  to  the 
air  in  large  cleaning  machines.  Gasolene  is-  ex- 
tremely volatile  and  evaporates  rapidly,  and  the  gas 
from  it  is  many  times  more  dangerous  than  gunpow- 
der. 

The  Rochester  Chamber  of  Commerce  mentions 
a  case  which  well  illustrates  the  danger  of  these 
highly  inflammable  liquids  in  the  home.  In  this  in- 
stance, a  woman  poured  a  quart  of  gasolene  into  a 
marble  wash-bowl  and  placed  a  silk  waist  in  it. 
She  closed  the  door  and  returned  to  the  room  in 
about  ten  minutes.  Then  she  rubbed  the  silk  be- 
tween her  hands.  This  generated  sufficient  elec- 
tricity to  cause  a  spark;  the  gasolene  exploded,  the 
house  was  burned  down  and  the  woman  was  killed. 

There  have  been  many  cases  in  which  the  house- 
wife has  used  rags  saturated  with  gasolene  mixture 
in  cleaning  a  kitchen  stove.  These  rags  have  been 
thrown  under  the  sink,  as  a  safe  and  handy  place. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  most  dangerous  of 


FIRE   IN   THE   DWELLING      29 

places.  Perhaps  in  the  middle  of  the  night  a  few 
drops  of  water  may  fall  upon  the  rags  from  a  leaky 
or  sweating  pipe,  dampening  them  and  forming  a 
highly  explosive  gas.  Hundreds  upon  hundreds  of 
fires  in  houses  have  been  caused  in  this  simple  way 
to  the  astonishment  of  the  householder. 

The  relative  part  played  in  the  fire  loss  by  various 
causes  already  mentioned  may  be  seen  by  an  exami- 
nation of  some  of  the  statistics  of  the  boroughs  of 
Manhattan,  the  Bronx  and  Richmond  in  the  city  of 
New  York  for  the  year  1911.  The  principal  causes 
of  fires  in  these  three  boroughs,  as  reported  by  the 
Division  of  the  Fire  Marshal  of  the  New  York  Fire 
Department,  and  the  number  of  fires  attributed  to 
them  were  as  follows : 


Carelessness  with  lighted  matches 1,366 

Children  playing  with  matches 354 

Carelessness  with  lighted  cigars  or  cigarettes 970 

Carelessness    with    candles 409 

Carelessness  with  gas  lights,  ranges,  radiators,  etc. 530 

Overheated   stoves,   stovepipes,   etc 446 

Chimney  fires    5^9 

Bonfires,  brush  fires,  etc 698 

In  addition  to  these,  other  causes  which  were  at 
the  root  of  many  fires  were : 

Spontaneous  combustion  of  oily  waste 102 

Lamps,  kerosene,  gasolene,  etc 117 

Electric  wires,  defective  insulation 231 

Vapour  of  benzine,  gasolene,  etc.,  igniting 209 


30  FIRE    PREVENTION 

These  figures  indicate  some  of  the  most  prevalent 
causes  out  of  10,069  fires  which  occurred.  In  fires 
resulting  from  carelessness  with  matches  alone  the 
estimated  loss  was  $278,322. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  greater  single  menace  than 
that  of  rubbish.  Its  disposal  in  many  houses  and 
in  most  small  towns  is  totally  improper  and  inade- 
quate. If  collected  in  any  quantity,  it  is  always 
a  source  of  anxiety  to  those  who  know  its  possi- 
bilities. Large  cities  are  apt  to  be  much  better 
provided  with  rubbish  disposal  systems  than  their 
smaller  sisters.  But  towns  and  villages  which  de- 
sire to  be  progressive  should  look  to  this  matter 
as  one  of  prime  importance.  A  good  plan  is  to 
have  a  brick  furnace  to  burn  waste  paper  and  rub- 
bish. 

Recently  the  Chief  Deputy  Fire  Marshal  of  the 
State  of  Nebraska,  Mr.  C.  A.  Randell,  has  de- 
scribed such  a  refuse  furnace  ("  The  American 
City"). 

"  Since  taking  charge  of  the  State  Fire  Commis- 
sion of  Nebraska,"  he  says,  "  I  have  discovered 
that  a  large  number  of  fires  are  caused  by  the  burn- 
ing of  trash,  paper  and  other  combustible  mate- 
rial in  the  streets  and  in  the  alleys.  In  some 
towns  merchants  use  a  burner  made  of  wire  fenc- 


FIRE    IN    THE    DWELLING      31 

ing.  They  fill  the  burner  with  paper  and  other 
combustible  material,  touch  a  match  to  it  and  it  will 
burn  and  blow  around  the  streets  and  alleys,  into 
areaways  and  scatter  the  debris  all  around.  They 
seem  to  think  when  they  burn  this  material  in  the 
wire,  that  they  are  safe-guarding  the  property  of 
the  town,  but  in  fact  it  is  absolutely  dangerous. 
Others  use  an  old  deserted  boiler;  the  fire  causes 
a  draft,  the  wind  whips  around  the  receptacle  and 
the  paper  and  other  material  contained  in  it  blows 
all  over  the  town.  That  too  is  dangerous.  I 
found  in  one  place  one  of  these  old  boilers  standing 
on  end  with  paper  and  trash  burning  in  it  right 
beside  a  high  board  fence,  and  within  six  feet  of 
a  little  wooden  shed  with  a  tank  containing  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  gasolene.  The  door 
of  the  shed  was  open. 

"  When  I  called  the  merchant's  attention  to  the 
dangerous  object,  he  informed  me  that  he  had  been 
doing  this  for  some  time  and  had  never  had  a  fire, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  fence  was  charred 
and  the  shed  was  blackened  by  the  smoke  from  the 
fire.  Recently,  while  making  an  inspection  of  a 
city  of  2,500  inhabitants,  under  weather  conditions 
which  made  everything  as  dry  as  it  could  possibly 
be,  and  while  the  wind  was  blowing  hot  and  dry 


32  FIRE    PREVENTION 

from  the  south,  I  found  that  business  being  a  little 
dull,  the  business  men  were  putting  in  their  time 
burning  their  trash  on  the  streets,  alleys,  and  in  the 
yards,  and  I  caused  several  fires  to  be  extinguished. 
"  In  one  of  the  towns  which  I  recently  inspected, 
I  found  that  they  had  made  provision  for  the  burn- 
ing of  rubbish  and  waste  by  compelling  the  mer- 
chants and  business  men  to  provide  brick  or  con- 
crete receptacles  in  which  to  burn  it.  This  type  of 
receptacle  is  the  best  thing  of  the  kind  that  I  have 
ever  seen,  and  it  is  very  inexpensive  to  construct. 
Several  of  the  merchants  on  a  block  go  in  together 
and  build  this  brick  furnace  at  the  back  of  some 
lot  as  far  as  possible  from  any  building.  The 
dimensions  of  this  furnace  are  as  follows:  4  feet 
wide,  4  feet  high,  4  feet  long,  with  walls  8  inches 
thick.  The  chimney  on  the  rear  of  one  end  is 
about  2j^  or  3  feet  high.  The  opening  into  the 
chimney  has  a  wire  screen  at  the  exit  of  the  oven, 
where  the  smoke  enters  the  chimney,  so  that  no 
paper  or  anything  that  is  burning  can  pass  through. 
The  entire  top  of  the  furnace  is  covered  by  a  gal- 
vanised iron  cover.  There  should  be  a  grate  pro- 
vided where  the  waste  is  to  be  laid,  at  least  one  foot 
from  the  ground.  This  can  be  made  out  of  old 
tire  iron  or  any  other  pieces  of  iron  placed  closely 


FIRE    IN    THE   DWELLING      33 

enough  together  to  support  the  material.  I  was  in- 
formed that  this  furnace,  all  complete,  cost  the  busi- 
ness men  who  constructed  it  about  $35,  and  as 
several  contributed  to  its  construction  it  did  not  cost 
any  one  of  them  over  $5  and  reduced  the  possi- 
bility of  a  fire  from  this  source  in  that  town  to  a 


minimum." 


Now,  as  to  the  manner  of  the  treatment  of  fire 
in  the  house,  if  one  does  break  out  in  spite  of  all 
precautions.  Every  house  should  be  provided  with 
a  sufficient  number  of  chemical  fire  extinguishers,  the 
location  of  which  should  be  known  to  all  the  inmates 
and  should  be  unchanging.  Such  an  extinguisher  is 
exceedingly  handy  and  inexpensive.  Its  construc- 
tion is  very  simple.  The  usual  type  consists  merely 
of  a  metal  tank  which  is  capable  of  sustaining  high 
internal  pressure*  The  usual  size  is  filled  with  two 
and  one-half  gallons  of  water  mixed  with  one  and 
one-half  pounds  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  At  the  top 
of  the  extinguisher  there  is  a  bottle  containing  about 
four  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid,  preserved  from  evapo- 
ration by  a  porcelain  or  leaden  stopper.  The  appa- 
ratus is  operated  by  turning  it  upside  down,  a  move- 
ment which  releases  the  sulphuric  acid  into  the  solu- 
tion of  water  and  bicarbonate  of  soda.  Thereby  a 
rapidly  expanding  gas  is  generated  which  forces  the 


34  FIRE    PREVENTION 

liquid  at  good  pressure  out  of  the  receptacle  through 
a  hose  and  nozzle.  Although  there  is  some  vari- 
ation in  individual  makes,  of  which  seventeen  are 
approved  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, the  average  throws  a  stream  which  is  about 
one-eighth  inch  in  diameter  at  the  nozzle  and  has 
a  range  of  about  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet 
This  is  sufficient  to  extinguish  a  small  blaze.  An 
extinguisher  should  be  kept  upon  each  floor  of  a 
house  and  about  one  to  every  one  thousand  feet 
of  floor  space  in  a  large  building. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  old-fashioned  pail  of 
water  will  immediately  extinguish  a  small  fire,  unless 
it  be  of  an  oily  nature,  if  it  be  promptly  brought 
into  use.  The  objection  to  pails,  however,  is  that 
they  are  carelessly  maintained  and  are  often  found 
half  empty  from  evaporation  when  they  are  most 
needed.  Moreover,  they  are  not  decorative,  and  a 
row  of  red  buckets  labelled  "  Fire  "  in  large  let- 
ters does  not  lend  itself  to  the  artistic  scheme  of 
most  private  houses.  The  chemical  extinguisher 
has  an  additional  advantage  over  the  water  pail, 
in  the  greater  accuracy  with  which  its  contents  can 
be  directed. 

If  a  fire  is  of  an  oily  nature  quick  action  with  a 
blanket  or  heavy  cloth  will  usually  smother  it,  and 


FIRE    IN    THE   DWELLING      35 

the  same  extinguishing  means  is  to  be  recommended 
for  explosions  of  lamps.  Remember  that  the  cru- 
cial point  with  every  fire  is  its  beginning.  There  is 
no  cause  for  alarm  simply  because  there  is  a  hot 
spurt  of  flame  and  a  cloud  of  smoke.  A  little  cool 
commonsense,  combined  with  prompt  execution,  will 
end  the  matter  before  it  has  attained  any  serious 
proportions. 

A  growing  practice  in  private  houses,  especially 
of  the  more  pretentious  sort,  is  to  install  a  stand 
pipe  with  a  hose  connection,  which  may  be  con- 
cealed in  a  closet  or  other  inconspicuous  place.  This 
is  an  excellent  measure,  as  a  good  stream  of  water 
will  frequently  do  the  required  work,  if  there  should 
be  an  accident  which  puts  the  chemical  extinguisher 
out  of  service,  or  if  it  is  exhausted.  If  such  a  stand 
pipe  and  hose  is  part  of  your  house  equipment,  see 
that  it  is  of  an  approved  type  and  that  fire  hose  of 
the  best  quality  is  chosen.  Inferior  hose  is  always 
unsatisfactory.  Deterioration  in  the  poorer  quali- 
ties more  than  offsets  their  cheapness. 

Fire  retardants  are  now  coming  into  use  as  fea- 
tures of  construction,  but  many  of  them  can  be  used 
in  houses  already  built  and  with  no  little  satisfac- 
tion. Among  them  may  be  mentioned  wired-glass 
in  metal  frames.  This  is  slightly  more  expensive 


36  FIRE   PREVENTION 

than  ordinary  window  glass,  but  infinitely  more  de- 
sirable from  the  fire  protection  standpoint.  Even 
if  this  glass  cracks,  the  wires  around  which  it  is 
fused  hold  it  in  place.  Of  course,  as  in  the  case 
with  fire-pails,  this  type  of  window  glass  is  shunned 
on  account  of  its  appearance.  It  certainly  is  utili- 
tarian rather  than  ornamental,  but  could  well  be 
installed  in  portions  of  the  house  which  do  not  call 
for  especial  beauty,  such  as  basements,  kitchens, 
laundries,  etc.  These  very  places  are  frequently 
those  in  which  the  danger  of  fire  is  greatest.  If  a 
dwelling  be  sufficiently  large  and  expensive  to  have 
an  elevator,  or  if  the  building  in  question  is  an  apart- 
ment house  in  which  an  elevator  is  installed,  much 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  shaft,  as  this  point 
is  one  of  especial  danger  in  spreading  flames.  Shafts 
and  halls  act  as  flues  unless  cut  off  from  direct  con- 
nection by  wired  glass  set  in  metal  frames  or  by 
thoroughly  fireproof  casings.  If  the  safety  meas- 
ure of  enclosing  the  openings  is  adopted,  it  should 
be  carried  out  thoroughly,  leaving  no  place  for  air 
leakage. 

There  are  on  the  market  a  number  of  paints  of 
fire  retardant  nature.  They  are  in  no  sense  fire- 
proof, but  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  to  varnish, 
oiling,  shellac,  or  even  ordinary  paints,  from  the 


Interior  of  Gutted  Equitable  Building 
Broadway  and  Cedar  Street  front. 


FIRE    IN   THE   DWELLING      37 

standpoint  of  fire  prevention.  These  paints,  for- 
tunately, are  applicable  to  interior  use,  and  they 
can  well  be  applied  to  the  parts  of  the  dwelling  in 
which  work  is  done,  as  well  as  to  the  living  rooms. 
For  cellars  and  outbuildings,  properly  mixed  white- 
wash falls  under  the  head  of  a  fire  retardant,  and  a 
formula  which  has  been  recommended  by  the  Light- 
house Board  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Depart- 
ment might  well  be  adopted.  It  is  as  follows: 

"  Slake  half  a  bushel  of  unslaked  lime  with  boil- 
ing water;  keep  it  covered  during  the  process. 
Strain  it  and  add  a  packet  of  salt,  dissolved  in  warm 
water;  three  pounds  of  ground  rice,  put  in  boiling 
water  and  stirred  to  a  thin  paste;  one-half  pound 
powdered  Spanish  whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear 
glue,  dissolved  in  hot  water.  Mix  these  well  to- 
gether and  let  the  mixture  stand  for  several  days. 
Keep  the  wash  thus  prepared  in  a  kettle  or  porta- 
ble furnace,  and  when  used  put  it  on  as  hot  as  pos- 
sible with  painters'  or  whitewash  brushes." 


CHAPTER    II 

FURTHER  MEASURES  FOR  PROTECTION  IN  THE  HOUSE 
THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  SMALL  TOWN 

As  a  protection  and  a  measure  to  offset  fire  loss, 
means  of  quick  communication  with  the  local  fire 
department  are  essential.  The  telephone  has  in 
many  instances  taken  the  place  of  other  methods  of 
notifying  the  department  of  fire,  but  although  the 
central  and  number  of  fire  headquarters  should  be 
posted  at  the  head  of  the  list  in  each  house  which 
possesses  a  telephone,  it  is  frequently  well  to  supple- 
ment the  instrument  by  a  special  fire  alarm.  Per- 
sons who  constantly  use  the  telephone  in  the  course 
of  daily  life  are  often  apt  to  forget  it  in  the  moment 
of  excitement  when  fire  breaks  out,  whereas  a  spe- 
cial apparatus  connected  in  the  mind  solely  with  the 
notification  of  fire  is  promptly  thought  of.  What- 
ever apparatus  is  employed  to  communicate  with 
the  department,  the  essential  thing  is  to  use  it 
promptly.  Home  apparatus  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other, extinguishers,  hose,  buckets  or  what  not,  may 

38 


DEPARTMENT  OF  A  TOWN    39 

and,  as  has  been  said,  do  serve  the  purpose,  but  they 
should  not  be  considered  a  sole  reliance,  and  the 
moment  a  fire  is  discovered,  the  department  whose 
business  it  is  to  extinguish  it  should  be  notified. 

Every  householder  should,  of  course,  know  the 
location  of  the  nearest  public  fire  alarm  box  and  its 
method  of  operation.  There  are  several  types  of 
excellent  boxes  in  which  simplicity  is  the  greatest 
virtue.  The  antiquated  key  box  is  fortunately  rap- 
idly disappearing,  though  many  are  still  in  use  and 
even  in  large  cities,  as,  for  instance,  in  parts  of 
Brooklyn,  some  are  to  be  found.  This  relic  of  the 
dark  ages  of  fire-fighting  should  be  extirpated  with 
all  possible  speed,  for  it  is  a  most  foolish  waste  of 
valuable  seconds  to  be  forced  to  rush  about  your 
own  house  looking  for  the  desired-  key,  or  more  fre- 
quently to  run  to  a  neighbour's  or  to  the  corner 
store  in  order  to  obtain  it.  Alarm  boxes  which 
have  proved  highly  satisfactory  are  those  which  re- 
quire only  the  turning  of  a  handle  to  open  the  out- 
side door,  and  then  the  pulling  down  of  a  conven- 
ient hook  to  send  in  the  alarm.  This  is  the  type 
in  use  in  most  of  our  large  cities  and  many  of  the 
smaller  communities. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  municipality  or  the  village 
to  see  that  proper  alarm  systems  are  provided.  It 


40  FIRE   PREVENTION 

is  the  business  of  the  citizen,  however,  when  his 
house  is  on  fire  to  give  an  alarm  by  any  and  every 
means  at  his  disposal.  As  in  most  matters  con- 
nected with  extinguishing  fires  the  motto  here  is, 
"  Do  Not  Wait."  Departments,  large  or  small, 
are  handicapped  greatly  by  the  tendency  of  the 
householder  or  the  employee  to  procrastinate,  and 
by  his  failure  to  turn  in  a  prompt  alarm.  Instances 
of  the  fatal  and  unfortunate  results  of  this  habit 
can  be  multiplied  without  end.  To  cite  but  one  such 
glaring  instance — at  the  fire  which  burned  out  the 
building  of  the  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society,  at 
No.  1 20  Broadway,  New  York,  in  January,  1912, 
employees  at  the  building  failed  to  turn  in  any  alarm, 
or  to  allow  one  to  be  turned  in,  until  the  fire  had 
been  burning  for  a  period  of  at  least  fifteen  minutes. 

Automatic  alarms  within  a  house  are  not  fre- 
quently found,  although  some  city  residences  of  the 
higher  class  and  some  large  country  houses  have 
been  fitted  with  thermostats  and  special  automatic 
systems  whereby  increased  protection  is  secured. 
This  type  of  alarm  is  of  great  value  and  may  be 
applied  with  particular  aptness  to  larger  buildings, 
such  as  stores,  lofts,  theatres  and  hotels. 

Taking  for  granted,  then,  that  the  householder 
has  done  all  that  may  properly  be  required  of  him 


EPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN    41 

for  the  purpose  of  protecting  his  life  and  property, 
let  us  now  see  what  should  be  done  by  the  depart- 
ment of  the  community  in  which  he  lives  to  assist 
him  in  this  cause.  Men  have  been  fighting  fire  ever 
since  they  learned  to  dwell  in  organised  communi- 
ties, and  almost  since  they  discovered  the  use  of 
this  indispensable  element.  The  history  of  civil- 
ised ages  is  marked  with  many  a  lurid  spot  when 
man's  servant  has  broken  its  bonds  and  become 
man's  master,  for  the  time  being  at  least.  Con- 
flagrations have,  as  is  well  known,  swept  many  great 
cities  all  down  the  ages.  London,  for  instance,  has 
been  again  and  again  laid  waste,  notably  in  the 
years  798,  982,  1087,  1132,  1212,  and  1666,  the 
last  date  being  that  of  the  so-called  "  Great  Fire," 
which  burned  for  four  days  and  caused  enormous 
loss  of  life  and  property.  Every  part  of  England 
has  suffered  similar  disasters,  different  only  in  de- 
gree, and  the  cities  of  other  countries  have  also  been 
heavy  sufferers.  Thus,  Berlin  was  destroyed  in 
1405;  while  Rome,  Moscow,  Lisbon  and  Venice,  as 
well  as  Copenhagen,  have  had  enormous  and  disas- 
trous fires.  Constantinople  has  suffered  perhaps 
more  frequently  than  any  other  city  within  the  Euro- 
pean zone ;  it  has  been  in  large  part  destroyed  twelve 
times  since  1792. 


42  FIRE    PREVENTION 

In  our  own  country,  the  memory  of  great  confla- 
grations is  still  fresh.  The  great  fires  which  de- 
stroyed Chicago  in  1871  and  Boston  in  1872;  those 
which  burned  large  areas  in  New  York  in  1835  anc^ 
1856;  the  San  Francisco  fire,  following  the  earth- 
quake, and  that  of  Baltimore,  are  remembered  as 
national  calamities.  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Pittsburg, 
Savannah,  Philadelphia,  Portland,  Maine,  and 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  have  likewise  been  sufferers. 

That  civilised  communities  should  endeavour  to 
combat  this  highly  destructive  force  was,  of  course, 
natural.  The  means  by  which  they  have  combated 
it  have  undergone  a  radical  evolution,  especially 
within  the  last  century,  and  still  more  so  within  the 
last  three  or  four  decades.  To  take  Philadelphia 
as  an  example;  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  town  had  some  seven  hundred 
dwelling  houses,  the  only  appliances  for  extinguish- 
ing fires  were  the  bucket,  the  ladder,  and  the  hook 
for  the  purpose  of  pulling  down  buildings.  In  1719 
an  English  fire  engine  was  purchased  for  fifty 
pounds,  this  sum  having  been  obtained  by  a  series 
of  fines  which  were  levied  for  a  number  of  breaches 
of  law. 

In  1735  Benjamin  Franklin  wrote  a  letter  on  this 
subject,  which  was  published  and  ran  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN    43 

"  In  the  first  place,  as  an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  a  pound  of  cure,  I  would  advise  how  they 
suffer  living  brandsends  or  coals  in  a  full  shovel  to 
be  carried  out  of  one  room  into  another  or  up  and 
down  stairs  unless  in  a  warming  pan  and  shut,  for 
scraps  of  fire  may  fly  into  chinks  and  make  no  ap- 
pearance until  mid-night,  when  your  stairs  being  in 
flames,  you  may  be  forced,  as  I  once  was,  to  leap 
out  of  your  windows  and  hazard  your  necks  to 
avoid  being  over-roasted." 

Poor  Richard  went  on  to  give  some  very  whole- 
some advice,  saying  that  if  chimneys  were  more 
frequently  and  more  carefully  cleaned  some  fires 
might  thereby  be  prevented. 

"  I  have  known  fire  chimneys  to  burn  most  furi- 
ously a  few  days  after  they  are  swept,"  he  wrote, 
"people  in  confidence  that  they  are  clean,  making 
large  fires.  Everybody  among  us  is  allowed  to 
sweep  chimneys  that  please  to  undertake  that  busi- 
ness, and  if  that  chimney  fires  through  fault  of  the 
sweep  the  owner  pays  the  fine  and  the  sweep  goes 
free.  This  thing  is  not  right.  Those  who  under- 
take the  sweeping  of  the  chimneys  and  employ  ser- 
vants for  that  purpose  ought  to  be  licensed  by  the 
Mayor  and  if  any  chimney  fires  and  flames  out 
fifteen  days  after  sweeping,  the  fine  should  be  paid 


44  FIRE    PREVENTION 

by  the  sweep,  for  it  is  his  fault.  We  have  at  pres- 
ent got  engines  enough  in  the  town,  but  I  question 
whether  in  many  parts  of  the  town  water  enough 
can  be  had  to  keep  them  going  an  hour  together. 
It  seems  to  me  some  public  water  works  are  wanting, 
but  that  I  sumbit  to  better  judgment." 

This  interest  of  Franklin  in  the  subject  of  fire 
probably  led  to  the  founding  of  the  Union  Fire 
Company  in  1736,  of  which  the  philosopher  him- 
self and  four  others  were  the  leading  members. 
Each  of  them  furnished  at  his  own  expense  six 
leather  buckets  and  two  stout  linen  bags,  which  he 
was  supposed  to  bring  to  every  fire.  The  buckets 
were,  of  course,  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  water 
on  the  flames,  and  the  bags  were  intended  to  be 
used  as  receptacles  for  property  and  valuables. 
The  members  had  an  agreement  to  attend  any  place 
from  which  an  alarm  came,  with  their  extensive  ap- 
paratus. There  seems  to  have  been  some  degree 
of  organisation  in  this  primitive  fire  department, 
for  regular  tasks  were  assigned  to  certain  members, 
such  as  watching  houses  that  were  burning  against 
theft,  looking  after  the  use  of  water,  etc.  When 
an  alarm  came  in,  lights  were  placed  in  the  windows 
of  those  members'  houses  which  were  near  the  scene 
of  the  blaze,  in  order  to  render  assistance  to  the 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN    45 

others  who  were  running  up.  Thirty  members  com- 
posed the  organisation,  which  held  eight  annual 
meetings.  This  plan  was  adopted  by  all  of  the  fire 
companies  in  the  city,  and  used,  with  modifications, 
until  the  Revolutionary  War  was  long  a  thing  of 
the  past.  Franklin's  company  existed  for  more 
than  eighty-four  years. 

Even  in  those  early  days  Europe  appears  to  have 
had  the  supremacy  over  America  in  matters  of  con- 
struction, which  was  noted  in  a  previous  chapter. 
Franklin  once  wrote  on  this  subject  from  London: 

"  It  appears  to  me  of  great  importance  to  build 
our  dwelling  houses,  if  we  can,  in  a  manner  more 
secure  from  danger  by  fire.  We  scarcely  ever  hear 
of  fire  in  Paris.  When  I  was  there,  I  took  par- 
ticular notice  of  the  construction  of  their  houses, 
and  I  did  not  see  that  one  of  them  could  well  be 
burned.  The  roofs  are  of  slate  or  tile,  the  walls 
are  stone,  the  walls  generally  lined  with  stucco  or 
plaster  instead  of  wainscot.  The  floors  of  stucco 
or  of  those  square  tiles  burned  brown,  or  of  flag- 
stone or  of  marble.  The  stairs  too  at  Paris  are 
either  stone  or  brick,  with  only  a  wooden  edge  or 
corner  for  the  step,  so  that  on  the  whole,  though 
the  Parisians  commonly  burn  wood  in  their  chimneys, 
a  more  dangerous  kind  of  fuel  than  that  used  here, 


46  FIRE    PREVENTION 

yet  their  houses  escape  extremely  well,  as  there  is 
little  in  a  room  that  can  be  consumed  by  fire  except 
the  furniture,  whereas  in  London  perhaps  scarcely 
a  year  passes  in  which  half  a  million  of  property 
and  many  lives  are  not  lost  by  this  destructive  ele- 
ment. Of  late,  indeed,  they  begin  here  to  leave  off 
wainscoting  their  rooms,  and  instead  of  it  cover 
the  walls  with  stucco,  often  formed  into  panels  like 
wainscot  which,  being  painted,  is  very  strong  and 
warm.  Stone  staircases,  too,  with  iron  rails,  grow 
more  and  more  into  fashion  here." 

In  many  towns  and  villages,  volunteer  fire  depart- 
ments have  long  been  a  familiar  part  of  the  com- 
munity life.  These  have  usually  been  formed  by 
persons  who  were  actuated  by  two  motives — the  de- 
sire to  be  of  service  and  to  protect  their  own  and 
others'  property,  and  the  love  of  excitement.  Every- 
one is  familiar  with  the  popular  characterisation  of 
the  volunteer  fire  department  which  has  become  a 
moss-grown  subject  for  jest  in  comic  supplements 
and  periodicals.  If  one  were  to  judge  by  these 
jesting  references  alone,  the  volunteer  fire  depart- 
ment would  be  merely  an  excuse  for  an  annual 
parade  in  gaudy  uniforms,  of  which  the  red  flannel 
shirt  is  an  indispensable  portion,  and  the  annual  or 
semi-annual  firemen's  ball,  which  is  the  most  excit- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A  TOWN     47 

ing  event  for  all  the  village  swains  and  eligible  young 
folk.  It  is  too  true  that  this  condition  is  frequently 
that  which  is  found,  for  volunteer  departments  often 
become  demoralised.  The  members,  filled  with  en- 
thusiasm at  first,  soon  tire  of  the  exertion  and  expo- 
sure which  is  required  by  attendance  at  all  the  fires  in 
their  neighbourhood,  and  after  the  first  few  months 
more  and  more  of  them  fail  to  turn  out  when  the 
alarm  rings  or  the  whistle  blows.  But  this  is  by  no 
means  a  universal  condition.  When  it  does  exist 
it  can  be  remedied  very  largely  by  tactful  adminis- 
tration on  the  part  of  the  local  chief.  He  must  be 
a  man  of  real  ability  and  a  natural  leader.  If  he 
has  the  requisite  qualifications,  he  can  soon  increase 
the  flagging  spirits  of  his  organisation  by  holding 
meetings  at  which  fire-fighting  problems  are  dis- 
cussed in  an  interesting  and  up-to-date  way,  the  ad- 
vice of  experts  given  and  a  spirit  of  pride  in  the 
efficiency  and  record  of  the  organisation  instilled. 

A  considerably  brighter  future  for  the  volunteer 
department,  or  the  pay  department,  of  a  small  town 
of  from  eight  to  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  for  in- 
stance, has  been  predicted  with  the  improvement  of 
motor  apparatus.  Some  of  the  types  of  power- 
driven  fire-fighting  machines  which  are  now  to  be 
had,  seem  well  fitted  for  service  in  a  community  of 


48  FIRE    PREVENTION 

this  kind,  although  I  believe  we  should  not  supplant 
the  horse  too  hastily.  The  interest  which  is  aroused 
by  keeping  everything  up  to  date  and  by  an  endeav- 
our to  establish  a  high  record  is  at  any  rate  a  great 
incentive  to  energetic  work.  The  leather  hose,  like 
the  red  shirt  of  the  volunteer  departments  of  old, 
is  no  longer  a  part  of  the  business  of  fire-fighting, 
and  when  the  falling  cost  of  really  effective  machines 
and  proper  equipment  brings  them  within  the  range 
of  most  small  town  departments,  outworn  methods 
should  not  be  tolerated.  The  upkeep  of  motor  ap- 
paratus is  certainly  far  less  than  that  of  horse- 
drawn  apparatus,  and  the  difference  is  so  great  that 
the  better  type  in  a  few  years  will  pay  for  its 
higher  initial  cost. 

An  increasingly  popular  outfit  for  a  large  town 
or  small  city  consists  in  a  combination  chemical  en- 
gine and  hose-wagon,  motor-driven,  which  will 
carry  tanks  of  chemical  fluid,  together  with  a  thou- 
sand feet  of  2  y2  -inch  hose.  This  will  serve  as  a 
still  alarm  apparatus,  to  be  the  first  on  the  spot. 
It  may  well  be  backed  up  by  an  automobile  pumping 
engine  of  from  500  to  800  gallons  capacity  which 
will  carry  a  thousand  feet  of  2j4-inch  hose.  This 
piece  of  apparatus  should  carry  axes,  small  extin- 
guishers, fire  hooks,  extra  nozzles,  etc.  The  hook 
and  ladder  for  such  a  department  may  also  be 


u 

§  *5b 


11 

I  §. 
1  1 

3  -g 
'J    i 


0  *5 
* 


. 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN    49 

driven  by  gasolene  and  should  have  ladders  of  vari- 
ous lengths,  with  a  maximum  of  fifty-five  feet,  to- 
gether with  battering-rams,  crowbars  and  the  other 
utensils  which  are  properly  carried  on  a  hook  and 
ladder  or  truck.  Again  let  me  counsel  caution  in 
adopting  motor  apparatus  too  speedily.  It  is  well 
to  have  in  reserve  at  any  rate  a  piece  of  horse-drawn 
apparatus  to  fall  back  on  in  case  of  any  disarrange- 
ment of  those  employing  newer  motive  power. 

Quick  service,  an  essential  in  any  department,  is 
the  chief  merit  of  motor  apparatus,  which  can  be 
started  more  quickly  than  that  of  the  old  type,  and 
driven  a  great  deal  more  quickly  even  under  un- 
favourable conditions  of  streets  and  roads.  In 
smaller  places,  the  chemical  engine  will  frequently 
answer  all  the  needs. 

That  this  apparatus  works  well  in  practice  in  a 
small  community  has  often  been  demonstrated, 
notably  in  the  department  of  Saskatoon,  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Saskatchewan,  Canada.  This  Canadian 
town,  which  in  1903  had  but  three  hundred  in- 
habitants, was  satisfied  at  first  with  a  remarkably 
primitive  fire  engine,  drawn  by  two  oxen,  but  as 
the  place  grew  this  method  of  extinguishing  fires 
was  found  a  trifle  antiquated,  and  now  that  the 
city  numbers  about  twenty  thousand,  a  combination 
piece  of  motor  apparatus  is  in  use. 


CHAPTER    III 

DEPARTMENT  OF  A  SMALL  TOWN — Continued 

WHEN  a  town  has  attained  a  sufficient  size  to  be 
incorporated  as  a  city  it  should  organise  a  paid  fire 
department  as  one  of  the  first  recognitions  of  its 
improved  condition.  Before  this  point  has  been 
reached,  however,  much  may  be  done  to  protect  lives 
and  property  by  means  of  a  volunteer  fire  depart- 
ment. Volunteer  departments  should  not  be  con- 
sidered as  jokes,  as  I  have  already  said.  Those 
who  enter  them  should  take  the  matter  seriously  and 
remember  above  all  things  their  pledge  to  protect 
the  lives  and  property  of  their  neighbours  and  them- 
selves. They  should  regard  fire-fighting  as  a  seri- 
ous undertaking  and  remember  that  for  their  own 
sake  as  well  as  for  others,  study  and  training  are 
essential. 

A  proper  alarm  system  is  a  prime  requisite  for 
the  volunteer  department.  This  is  one  of  the  mat- 
ters which  has  been  sadly  neglected  in  the  past. 
The  antiquated  system  of  ringing  an  alarm  when 
fire  is  discovered,  to  summon  the  members  of  the 

50 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     51 

department  to  the  local  headquarters  or  fire  house, 
from  which  they  can  then  run  to  the  fire,  guided  by 
smoke  or  light  from  the  flames,  is  as  much  a  thing 
of  the  past  as  the  red  shirt  or  leather  hose.  There 
is  no  reason  why  a  system  of  simple  box  alarms 
should  not  be  installed  in  the  small  town  as  well  as 
in  cities ;  then,  when  an  alarm  is  turned  in,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  department  will  be  able  to  locate  the  fire 
without  running  first  to  headquarters  to  find  its 
location. 

The  loss  of  precious  moments  from  this  cause  can 
be  prevented  whether  boxes  are  used  for  sending  in 
the  alarm  or  not,  by  having  the  town  divided  into 
districts  or  sections,  each  of  which  has  a  corre- 
sponding number  which  may  be  sounded  on  the 
alarm  bell  or  siren  whistle.  By  this  means,  as  soon 
as  the  bell  rings  or  whistle  blows,  the  fire-fighters 
know  the  location  and  can  respond  to  it  at  once.  At 
headquarters  or  at  the  engine  houses  two  men  should 
always  be  on  duty,  night  and  day.  There  are  mem- 
bers of  nearly  every  volunteer  department  who  are 
so  situated  that  they  will  be  glad  of  a  comfortable 
place  to  sleep,  at  no  cost  to  themselves.  The  house 
must  be  kept  up  in  any  case  and  it  will  cost  the 
town  no  more  to  have  two  of  its  firemen  sleep 
there.  Of  course,  if  motor  apparatus  is  used,  one 


52  FIRE   PREVENTION 

of  these  men,  or  preferably  both,  must  understand 
how  to  operate  it,  while,  if  the  apparatus  is  horse- 
drawn,  they  must  be  responsible  and  capable  enough 
to  drive  it. 

Suppose,  then,  that  this  plan  is  followed.  What 
happens  when  an  alarm  comes  in,  let  us  say,  at 
night?  First  the  alarm  bell  or  whistle  is  sounded, 
giving  the  number  of  the  district  in  which  the  fire 
has  been  located  either  because  a  box  has  been 
"pulled"  or  a  watchman  stationed  in  the  familiar 
watch-tower  has  seen  smoke  or  flames  there.  Next, 
the  men  stationed  in  quarters  at  once  drive  the  ap- 
paratus to  the  proper  district.  Thirdly,  while  they 
are  doing  this,  the  other  members  of  the  depart- 
ment are  responding  as  fast  as  possible,  knowing 
the  approximate  location  of  the  blaze.  How  much 
better  than  the  old  wild  dash  to  quarters  by  the 
entire  department  followed  by  another  run  to  the 
scene  of  action  guided  only  by  the  light  of  the  blaze 
itself. 

What  the  apparatus  for  such  a  small  town  should 
be  is  hard  to  decide,  by  rule.  The  geography, 
topography,  character  of  buildings,  and  other  local 
circumstances  make  the  requirements  different  for 
each  town  or  village.  For  these  reasons  it  must  be 
left  to  the  decision  of  the  local  experts  whether 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     53 

they  have  a  steamer,  a  chemical  engine,  a  truck  or 
all  three,  and  how  many  of  each  type  of  apparatus 
are  needed.  Whatever  type  is  chosen  should  be  of 
the  best  quality,  however,  and  fully  equipped  with 
the  proper  tools  and  implements.  If  a  steamer  is 
used,  it  should  ordinarily  be  a  small  one,  light 
enough  to  be  drawn  by  two  horses.  Such  an  en- 
gine should  have  a  capacity  of  about  350  gallons 
to  the  minute.  In  many  of  our  small  towns  there 
is  a  plentiful  water  supply  obtained  from  surround- 
ing high  land  and  entering  the  town,  therefore,  with 
a  good  gravity  pressure.  Places  thus  fortunately 
provided  can  get  along  well  without  a  pumping  en- 
gine. For  them  the  chemical  engine  in  its  various 
forms  is  an  excellent  machine.  If  the  gravity  pres- 
sure is  to  be  relied  on  for  streams  of  water,  how- 
ever, care  must  be  taken  to  make  sure  that  the  mains 
are  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  an  ample  supply. 

Drills  and  inspections  should  be  frequent  and 
thorough  in  every  volunteer  department,  to  teach 
the  members  to  take  care  of  themselves  as  well  as 
of  others  when  the  emergency  arises.  There  is 
a  distressingly  long  death  and  accident  list  each  year 
among  volunteer  firemen — who,  by  the  way,  seldom 
lack  bravery — simply  because  they  are  ignorant  of 
their  calling  and  do  not  know  how  to  take  proper 


54  FIRE    PREVENTION 

measures  for  self-protection.  An  instance  of  this 
sort  of  thing  occurred  a  year  or  so  ago  in  West- 
chester  County  in  this  State. 

Fire  broke  out  in  a  frame  house  and  when  the 
firemen  arrived,  they  found  the  flames  well  under 
way.  They  decided  to  follow  a  plan  which  is  a 
favourite  among  volunteer  companies  when  they  face 
a  blaze  that  seems  already  beyond  the  remedy  of 
available  water,  namely,  to  pull  down  the  entire 
front  of  the  house.  Consequently  a  hook  at  the 
end  of  a  rope  was  attached  to  a  window  frame  or 
opening  high  in  the  front  wall  and  the  members 
of  the  department  took  hold  with  a  will  and  pro- 
ceeded to  pull  out  the  whole  front  of  the  building. 
They  did  not  know  what  a  dangerous  undertaking 
that  was,  apparently,  for  they  hauled  it  over  on 
top  of  themselves  with  the  result  that  two  or  three 
were  killed  and  many  injured. 

This  idea  of  tearing  down  buildings  as  a  means 
of  stopping  fire  is  one  which  has  come  down  to  us 
from  very  early  times  and  which  still  persists  more 
or  less  even  among  the  best  trained  and  most  elabo- 
rate departments,  in  the  use  of  explosives  to  cre- 
ate an  immune  zone  in  the  path  of  conflagrations. 
But,  of  course,  the  trend  of  development  has  been 
in  the  direction  of  less  destructive  methods  of  van- 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     55 

quishing  the  flames.  Strides  in  this  direction  have 
been  enormous  and  to  those  who  are  familiar  with 
the  perfected  and  effective  apparatus  of  the  present 
it  seems  little  short  of  marvellous  that  the  men  of 
old  could  have  made  any  headway  at  all  against  the 
enemy  with  their  primitive  weapons. 

Some  of  these  were  indeed  curious.  A  fire  wheel 
which  was  equipped  with  a  force  pump  is  believed 
to  have  been  invented  in  the  year  150  B.  C.,  and  in 
the  first  century  a  machine  came  into  use  which 
seems  to  have  been  operated  with  hand  levers. 
Bombs,  containing  water,  formed  another  item  of 
old-time  equipment.  They  were  hollow  globes  of 
clay  which  had  gunpowder  in  one  compartment,  to 
which  a  fuse  was  attached.  When  used  at  a  fire 
they  were  thrown  into  the  midst  of  the  flames  just 
as  the  hand  grenades  of  a  few  decades  ago  were 
thrown,  and  then,  when  the  explosion  occurred,  the 
water  was  showered  over  some  of  the  burning  area. 

A  lever  engine  or  pump  which  was  really  practi- 
cable was  invented  by  a  resident  of  Nuremburg, 
Germany,  in  1657.  This  machine  was,  of  course, 
worked  by  hand  power,  and  when  twenty-five  or 
thirty  men  manned  the  levers  it  could  throw  a  stream 
of  water  to  a  height  of  about  eighty  feet.  Im- 
provements on  this  machine  led  to  gradually  pro- 


56  FIRE    PREVENTION 

gressive  types,  and  finally  to  the  lever  pump  which 
worked  something  like  the  old  form  of  railroad 
hand  car  and  persisted  down  to  the  time  of  the 
steam  fire  engine,  introduced  in  the  last  century. 
Until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  squirts  and 
water  guns  were  in  quite  general  use  and  their  feeble 
efforts  against  a  good  hot  fire  are  not  hard  to 
imagine. 

Antiquated  as  these  crude  implements  for  fire- 
fighting  seem  to  our  modern  way  of  thinking,  they 
are  only  different  in  degree  from  the  methods  which 
have  prevailed  in  many  a  small  town  or  village 
until  very  recent  years.  It  would  be  just  as  foolish 
to  return  to  them  now  as  to  go  on  with  a  system  of 
improper  drilling,  imperfect  machinery,  the  use  of 
which  the  members  of  the  department  do  not  fully 
know,  and  an  indiscriminate,  scatter-brained  method 
of  attacking  fires  when  they  are  reached. 

Those  who  have  made  no  study  of  the  small  town 
departments  would  be  astonished  to  learn  the  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  fire  hazard  and  the  methods  of 
fire-fighting  which  some  of  them  display.  Not  long 
ago  some  residents  of  a  small  town  which  shall  be 
nameless,  sought  my  advice  about  buying  a  truck. 
They  wanted  to  know  what  kind  of  a  truck  they 
should  purchase,  what  length  of  ladders  it  should 
have,  how  heavy  it  should  be,  how  much  it  would 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     57 

cost  and  so  forth.  I  asked  them  what  pieces  of 
apparatus  they  already  had. 

"  Why,  we  haven't  any,"  they  told  me. 

And  they  seemed  surprised  when  I  pointed  out 
that  it  would  be  rather  hard  to  put  out  a  fire  with 
an  unaided  hook  and  ladder. 

On  another  occasion  I  was  called  down  to  a 
small  place  near  New  York  to  inspect  the  fire  de- 
partment. I  found  that  it  consisted  of  a  gasolene 
pumping  engine.  That  was  well  enough  as  far  as 
it  went,  though  I  am  inclined  to  suspend  judgment 
on  this  type  of  apparatus  until  it  has  been  subjected 
to  further  tests,  but  I  happened  to  notice  that  this 
particular  engine  was  connected  to  the  floor  of  the 
fire  house.  Naturally  I  asked  the  chief  what  the 
idea  of  that  was.  He  explained  that  whenever 
there  was  a  fire  the  engine  was  simply  left  in  the 
house  and  lines  of  hose  were  stretched  from  there 
to  the  scene  of  the  blaze.  I  inquired  about  the 
procedure  in  case  the  fire  happened  to  be  in  the  end 
of  town  farthest  from  the  house,  and  he  then  told 
me  that  they  had  another  connection  there  to  which 
they  could  attach  the  engine  and  again  stretch  hose 
from  that  point  to  the  scene  of  trouble.  I  left  that 
town  wondering  why  it  had  not  been  entirely  con- 
sumed long  ago. 

Assuming  that  a  town  wants  to  cast  off  all  such 


58  FIRE    PREVENTION 

moss-grown  methods  and  have  as  up-to-date  a  de- 
partment as  its  resources  will  permit,  what  shall  it 
do  to  attain  its  desire?  I  will  first  speak  of  the 
matter  of  an  alarm  system.  Little  need  be  said 
about  this  if  it  depends  on  a  watchman  who  looks 
over  the  town  from  a  tower  or  other  point  of  van- 
tage. Alarm  boxes  are  infinitely  to  be  preferred 
to  this  plan. 

The  boxes  should  be  of  the  keyless  type,  require 
ing  but  two  operations  at  most  to  send  in  an  alarm. 
They  should  be  conspicuously  painted  and  the  poles 
on  which  they  are  mounted  should  be  painted  in 
bright  colours  as  well.  This  has  been  done  in  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  where  alternate  stripes  of  red  and 
white  make  the  box  poles  unmistakable.  Red  lights 
should  mark  box  location  at  night.  No  definite 
rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  locations  of  boxes,  as 
local  conditions  of  necessity  govern  this  matter.  But 
in  general  not  more  than  five  hundred  feet  should 
have  to  be  traversed  to  reach  a  box  in  a  mercantile 
or  manufacturing  district,  while  eight  hundred  feet 
should  be  the  maximum  for  the  residential  and  out- 
lying districts. 

Boxes  should  not  be  placed  inside  buildings — 
except  of  course  special  building  boxes  not  usually 
found  in  small  towns,  and  even  they  are  more  prop- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A  TOWN     59 

erly  placed  on  the  outer  walls  of  buildings  in  con- 
venient locations. 

Boxes  should  not  be  placed  on  the  same  poles 
that  carry  wires  of  high-potential  system  circuits  and 
not  more  than  twenty  should  be  on  a  single  circuit. 
Wires  should  have  an  insulating  cover  of  a  type 
approved  by  proper  authority.  In  places  usually 
damp  or  in  conduits  this  should  be  of  rubber  not 
less  than  3-64  of  an  inch  thick  and  covered  with  a 
strong  braid.  For  dry  places  and  open  work  it 
should  be  a  filled  braid  at  least  1-32  of  an  inch  thick 
and  of  the  same  character  for  use  in  moulding  or 
tubing. 

Overhead  wires  should  have  a  conductivity  equal 
to  No.  10  B.  &  S.  galvanised  iron  and  a  tensile 
strength  equivalent  to  No.  10  hard  drawn  copper, 
where  single  wires  are  used,  and  No.  14  of  the 
same  material  in  the  case  of  a  cable.  They  should 
be  supported  entirely  on  porcelain  or  glass  insu- 
lators, at  least  every  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet, 
and  if  they  must  be  placed  on  the  same  poles  as 
electric  light  and  power  wires,  contact  with  these 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against.  If  under- 
ground wires  are  used  no  cable  should  be  installed 
in  the  same  duct  with  any  other  circuit  nor  in  the 
same  manhole  with  high  potential  circuits. 


60  FIRE    PREVENTION 

Wires  and  cables  within  fire  houses  and  other 
buildings  should  be  supported  in  conduits  or  other 
non-combustible  and  non-absorbtive  material  and 
should  not  come  in  contact  with  other  material  than 
the  designed  supports  and  instruments.  The  bat- 
teries of  such  a  system  should  be  closed  circuit  pri- 
mary or  storage  batteries  and  should  be  housed  in 
a  building  preferably  under  municipal  control  and 
in  a  room  which  is  not  subject  to  great  changes  of 
temperature.  They  should  not  be  in  the  same 
building  with  the  local  telephone  office.  Storage 
batteries  are  not  to  be  recommended  unless  the 
source  of  the  charging  current  and  proper  mainte- 
nance is  reliable.  If  they  are  used,  a  duplicate  set 
should  be  provided,  each  set  sufficient  to  run  the  en- 
tire system  for  sixty  hours. 

In  the  fire  houses  an  efficient  form  of  register 
should  be  provided  to  record  all  alarms.  A  whistle 
blowing  machine  or  bell  striker  may  be  used  to 
give  the  outside  alarms.  If  necessary  there  may, 
of  course,  be  more  than  one  of  these.  At  any  rate 
the  location  of  such  an  alarm  should  be  such  that 
the  call  members  of  the  department  can  readily 
hear  it. 

In  addition,  tappers  with  gongs,  on  which  all  the 
alarms  should  be  struck,  should  be  installed  in  the 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     61 

homes  of  the  chief,  engineers  or  other  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  department.  These  tappers  ought  not 
to  be  on  the  same  circuits  as  the  boxes. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  in  connection 
with  such  a  system  is  proper  maintenance.  For 
this  purpose  tests  should  be  made  daily;  better  still, 
twice  daily.  The  purpose  of  the  system  is  defeated 
if  it  is  not  in  working  order  when  a  fire  really  oc- 
curs and  these  daily  tests  should  be  supplemented 
by  inspections  of  the  battery  equipment  and  record- 
ing machines  at  least  once  every  week. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  this  mat- 
ter of  proper  inspection  of  signalling  systems  and  of 
all  the  other  factors  of  the  department  which  are 
mechanical.  No  system  yet  devised  is  sufficiently 
automatic  to  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  periodic 
overhauling  and  careful  scrutiny.  This  supervision 
should  be  in  charge  of  a  responsible  person  and  the 
local  chief  should  hold  himself  accountable  for  it. 
The  municipal  authorities  should  be  in  harmony 
with  the  man  in  charge,  and  the  department  and 
these  authorities  should  work  in  harmony  for  the 
upbuilding  of  an  efficient  force,  its  preservation  and 
improvement.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  and 
there  is  no  branch  of  village,  town  or  city  life  in 
which  the  proverbial  "  stitch  in  time  "  has  more 


62  FIRE    PREVENTION 

direct  bearing  than  in  the  fire  department.     Always 
ready,  always  in  order,  are  the  prime  requisites. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  any  fire  de- 
partment is  the  hose.  Inferior  or  imperfect  hose 
at  once  sets  at  naught  the  efforts  of  the  fire-fighters 
and  discounts  any  other  points  of  merit,  such  as 
promptness,  training  or  special  aptitude  which  the 
department  may  possess.  It  is,  therefore,  essential 
that  hose  of  the  proper  character  be  purchased  and 
that  it  receive  careful  attention  during  its  life  in  the 
department.  This  is  a  subject  of  perhaps  special 
weight  in  the  small  department  or  volunteer  depart- 
ment, because  the  comparative  infrequency  of  fires 
opens  the  way  to  special  dangers  in  deterioration 
and  unfitness  of  hose. 

Only  hose  which  fulfils  the  requirements  of  the 
competent  authorities  should  be  purchased.  For 
the  small  town  2  J^ -inch  hose  is  perhaps  preferable. 
This  term  of  measurement  refers,  of  course,  to  in- 
ternal diameter.  A  very  satisfactory  type  is  that 
made  from  cotton  fabric  lined  with  rubber.  The 
fabric  should  be  of  even  and  firm  texture  and  free 
from  all  imperfections  and  defects  save  those  slight 
injuries  which  are  incident  to  the  most  careful  man- 
ufacture. The  yarn  from  which  it  is  woven  should 
be  made  from  selected  long-staple  cotton.  No.  12 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     63 

yarn  should  have  a  strength  of  not  less  than  eighty 
pounds. 

This  fabric  may  be  of  but  one  thickness,  called 
single  jacket,  or  it  may  be  of  two  or  three  jackets 
or  plies.  The  two-jacket  type  is  perhaps  the  most 
serviceable  for  the  average  department  of  the  char- 
acter now  under  discussion.  A  fifty-foot  length  of 
this  hose  if  2  J^ -inch,  should  weigh  not  more  than 
sixty  pounds  with  couplings.  The  rubber  lining  of 
hose  of  this  character  should  contain  not  less  than 
40  per  cent,  of  pure  rubber,  new  and  not  deresin- 
ised.  This  lining  must,  of  course,  be  well  cemented 
to  the  jacket  in  a  way  which  will  give  durability  and 
as  little  corrugation  as  possible. 

Couplings  should  be  of  the  expanding  ring  pat- 
tern and  should  be  made  of  an  alloy  of  copper,  tin 
and  zinc.  The  weight  for  2^2 -inch  diameter  should 
not  be  less  than  5J4  pounds.  They  ought  to  have 
a  rubber  gasket  of  the  best  quality  and  rubber  wash- 
ers to  absolutely  prevent  the  wetting  and  consequent 
rotting  of  the  ends  of  the  cotton  fabric  of  the  hose. 

Hose  should  be  flexible  and  easily  coiled.  It 
must  be  strong,  however.  Two-jacket  hose  should 
withstand  a  pressure  of  at  least  three  hundred 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  and  be  capable  of  with- 
standing considerably  more.  A  reasonable  amount 


64  FIRE    PREVENTION 

of  stretch  in  woven  hose  is  desirable,  but  too  much 
is  a  sign  of  weakness  and  should  be  avoided.  The 
amount  of  elongation  under  pressure  of  three  hun- 
dred pounds  should  not  exceed  thirty-six  inches  in 
fifty  feet  in  the  type  of  hose  of  which  I  have  been 
speaking.  Twist  is  likewise  an  indication  of  weak- 
ness, usually  of  improper  weaving,  and  I  would  not 
recommend  hose  that  showed  much  twist  under  one 
hundred  pounds  pressure  or  more  than  one  turn  in 
fifty  feet  under  three  hundred  pounds  pressure.  In 
all  cases  the  twist  ought  to  be  in  a  direction  which 
will  tend  to  tighten  rather  than  loosen  the  couplings. 

Rrbber  hose  and  rubber-lined  cotton  duck  hose 
are  also  extensively  used.  The  latter  does  not 
stretch  or  twist  quite  so  easily  as  that  of  cotton 
fabric,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  not  so  serviceable. 
Whatever  the  kind  of  hose  used,  however,  one  pro- 
vision should  be  insisted  on;  namely,  that  the  name 
of  the  maker  and  the  year  and  month  of  manufac- 
ture be  stamped  in  indelible  letters  on  each  length 
near  the  couplings.  The  couplings  as  well  should 
bear  similar  markings  so  that  the  age  of  any  part  of 
the  equipment  may  be  told  at  a  glance. 

It  has  been  the  practise  to  use  2  J^ -inch  couplings 
on  3-inch  hose  and  3-inch  couplings  on  3^ -inch  hose. 
This  is  a  bad  plan  and  causes  the  loss  of  much  pres- 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     65 

sure  through  friction.  This  is  an  additional  argu- 
ment for  the  use  of  standard  couplings.  The  adop- 
tion of  a  standard  coupling  is  a  matter  that  I  re- 
gard as  of  high  importance.  To  the  layman  it  may 
seem  a  mere  minor  detail,  but  one  of  the  most  short- 
sighted things  which  can  be  done  by  a  fire  depart- 
ment is  to  retain  couplings  which  will  not  connect 
with  those  of  its  neighbours.  This  is  true  of  the 
great  city  as  well  as  of  the  hamlet  and  there  have 
been  a  number  of  instances  in  my  own  experience 
where  the  lack  of  interchangeable  couplings  has 
caused  serious  inconvenience  and  delay. 

This  was  the  case  at  the  Baltimore  fire.  The 
engines  from  the  New  York  department  which  were 
sent  to  help  fight  the  conflagration  found  that  they 
could  not  connect  with  the  hydrants  in  use  in  the 
Maryland  city,  and  the  hose  which  came  from  New 
York  could  not  be  used  to  supplement  that  of  the 
Baltimore  department,  except,  of  course,  by  the  at- 
tachment of  converters,  which  led  to  delay  and  mini- 
mised the  help  that  might  have  been  rendered.  For- 
tunately the  station  which  most  of  the  New  YorK 
apparatus  took  was  not  far  from  a  waterway  and 
they  were  able  to  stretch  their  hose  and  get  water 
by  suction. 

Philadelphia    does    not   use   the    same    coupling 


66  FIRE    PREVENTION 

standard  as  New  York.  In  case  of  a  great  fire  in 
either  city,  therefore,  in  which  help  was  called  for 
from  the  other,  the  same  condition  would  prevail 
as  was  found  at  Baltimore,  and  the  assistance  which 
might  otherwise  prove  the  turning  point  in  the  bat- 
tle would  be  lost  or  interfered  with  to  a  serious 
extent.  This  difference  in  the  seemingly  small  mat- 
ter of  couplings  is  very  prevalent  among  small 
towns,  and  as  they  often  stand  in  special  need  of 
assistance  from  their  neighbours,  it  is  particularly 
unfortunate  for  them. 

The  specifications  which  make  up  the  national 
standard  coupling  have  now  been  approved  by  the 
following  associations,  among  others,  interested  in 
fire  prevention :  The  American  Public  Works  Asso- 
ciation; American  Society  of  Municipal  Improve- 
ments; American  Waterworks  Association;  Inter- 
national Association  of  Fire  Engineers;  League  of 
American  Municipalities;  Minnesota  State  Fire- 
men's Association;  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers; National  Fire  Protection  Association;  Na- 
tional Firemen's  Association;  New  England  Water- 
works Association;  North  Carolina  State  Firemen's 
Association;  Pennsylvania  Waterworks  Associa- 
tion; Virginia  State  Firemen's  Association. 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A  TOWN     67 

These  specifications  are  as  follows: 

Inside  diameter  of  hose  in  inches.. 2,y2  in.    3  in.    $y2  in    4%  in. 
Number  of  threads  per  inch jl/2          66  4 


MALE  COUPLINGS 

Outside  diameter  of  thread 

FINISHED  3-i/i6in.  3^  in.  4%  in.  5^  in. 

Diameter  at  root  of  thread.2.8715  in.  3.3/63  in.  4.0013  in.  5.39/0  in. 
Clearance  between  Male 

and  Female  threads. . . .  .03  in.  .03  in.  .03  in.  .05  in. 
Total  length  of  threaded 

end    I  in.       i^in       i^in.       i^  in. 


The  above  to  be  of  the  sixty  degree  V-thread  pat- 
tern, with  i-ioo  inch  cut  off  the  top  of  thread  and 
i-ioo  inch  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  valley  in  2^- 
inch,  3-inch,  and  3^2-inch  couplings,  and  2-100  inch 
in  like  manner  for  the  4J^-inch  couplings  and  with 
%-inch  blank  end  on  male  part  of  coupling  in  each 
case.  Female  ends  to  be  cut  ^4-inch  blank  end  on 
male  part  of  coupling  in  each  case.  Female  ends 
to  be  cut  %-inch  shorter  for  endwise  clearance. 
They  should  also  be  bored  out  .03  inch  larger  in 
the  2^2-inch,  3-inch  and  3>i-mch  sizes,  and  .05  inch 
larger  in  the  4J^-inch  size  in  order  to  make  up  easily 
and  without  jamming  or  sticking. 

In  towns  and  cities  in  which  the  couplings  are  not 
standard  they  may  be  converted  to  this  type  at  a 


68  FIRE    PREVENTION 

comparatively  low  cost.  There  is  a  special  device 
for  replacing  hydrant  nipples  with  the  standard  type 
or  they  may  be  made  to  serve  by  the  use  of  adapters. 
Such  adapters  may  also  be  fitted  easily  to  fire-engine 
nipples  and  may  be  carried  on  hose  wagons  to  over- 
^come  the  obstacle  of  couplings  not  yet  converted. 
As  the  old  hose  wears  out  new  equipment  should  be 
specifically  ordered  with  the  National  Standard 
threads  and  in  this  way  the  change  may  conveniently 
be  effected. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  FACTORIES,   LOFT  BUILDINGS, 
AND  OTHER  LARGE  STRUCTURES 

IN  the  present  era  of  constant  business  growth  and 
an  ever-increasing  number  of  buildings  devoted  to 
manufacturing,  selling,  storing  and  other  commer- 
cial purposes,  one  of  the  most  important  fields  of 
fire  protection  lies  in  structures  of  this  general  class. 
Factories,  lofts,  office  buildings  and  department 
stores  are  springing  up  all  over  our  great  country 
with  astonishing  rapidity.  Some  are  well  built, 
many  are  not.  Some  have  installed  modern  and 
sensible  methods  of  preventing  fire;  a  very  large 
majority  have  not.  Such  structures  should  be 
obliged  by  law  to  conform  to  standard  regulations 
of  known  value  in  the  matter  of  their  fire  hazard 
provisions;  I  mean  of  much  wider  scope  than  those 
contained  in  the  average  building  code. 

Many  of  the  suggestions  which  have  been  made 
in  a  previous  chapter  for  the  protection  of  dwelling 
houses  and  small  buildings  apply  as  well  to  larger 

69 


70  FIRE    PREVENTION 

structures.  General  watchfulness,  care  in  wiring, 
provisions  for  alarm  and  private  fire-fighting  appa- 
ratus are  all  indicated  for  them  as  clearly  as  for  the 
private  house  or  the  small  tenement.  In  fact,  these 
things  are  even  more  imperative,  both  on  account 
of  the  dangerous  character  of  the  occupations  which 
are  carried  on  in  many  of  the  larger  buildings  and 
on  account  of  the  greater  number  of  lives  and 
greater  value  of  property  which  fire  in  them  in- 
volves. 

Strangely  enough  the  owners  of  many  such  build- 
ings or  their  lessees  are  too  short-sighted  to  per- 
ceive the  immense  advantage  which  a  little  study 
and  application  of  the  rules  of  fire  protection  would 
be  to  them. 

Such  men  insure,  they  comply  with  the  law — per- 
haps— in  the  matter  of  construction,  and  then  they 
sit  back  contentedly,  feeling  that  all  is  well  and  they 
have  only  to  attend  to  the  strictly  commercial  side 
of  their  business.  This  is  the  sheerest  folly.  In- 
surance is  an  excellent  thing,  but  insurance  never 
makes  up  for  the  loss  of  a  thriving  business  by  fire. 
The  value  of  the  physical  property  may  be  returned, 
it  is  true,  but  what  of  the  good  will,  the  ability  to 
meet  competition  and  to  fill  orders?  To  put  it 
still  more  materialistically,  what  about  the  payment 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          71 

of  damages  for  the  loss  or  injury  of  employees  in 
case  the  responsibility  can  be  fixed  upon  the  em- 
ployer? 

These  things  are  never  "  covered  "  by  insurance. 
The  truth  is  so  self-evident  that  it  is  simply  astonish- 
ing that  it  is  not  universally  appreciated.  And  this, 
too,  is  merely  the  practical,  business  side  of  the  ques- 
tion. It  is  the  equation  in  terms  of  money.  There 
is,  of  course,  another  side,  that  of  the  obligation, 
the  moral  responsibility,  which  the  owner  of  a  build- 
ing, or  the  employer  of  labor  has  toward  his  fellow 
property  holders  or  his  workmen.  He  is  neglect- 
ing his  obvious  duty  to  society  as  well  as  his  selfish 
interest  if  he  does  not  see  to  it  that  he  is  not  living 
in  a  fools'  paradise,  and  that  measures  have  been 
taken  to  really  protect,  as  far  as  may  be,  his  prop- 
erty and  his  employees. 

The  question,  then,  is  how  shall  he  do  this,  what 
steps  shall  he  take  to  set  his  house  in  order  against 
the  fire  peril?  As  every  building  has  different 
characteristics  and  presents  a  different  problem  it 
is  impossible  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  to 
cover  the  placing  of  apparatus,  etc.,  in  detail,  but 
the  things  that  should  always  be  done  are  many  and 
may  be  defined. 

Take  as  an  example  a  factory  or  a  mill.     Ideally, 


72  FIRE    PREVENTION 

of  course,  it  should  be  of  fireproof  construction 
throughout — unburnable.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  un- 
less it  was  built  in  very  recent  times,  and  probably 
not  even  in  that  case,  it  is  very  far  from  fireproof. 
But  this  does  not  mean  that  the  fire  hazard  in  it  can- 
not be  reduced.  In  the  first  place,  the  danger  spots 
should  be  looked  for.  The  engine  room  or  boiler 
room,  suggesting  waste  soaked  in  oil;  the  wiring,  if 
electricity  is  used;  the  gas,  if  that  is  the  means  of  il- 
lumination; the  belting  of  machinery;  the  collection 
of  dust  or  lint  on  walls  and  ceilings ;  general  untidi- 
ness and  uncleanliness,  the  disposal  of  ashes  and, 
last,  but  not  least,  the  smoking  habits  of  the  em- 
ployees. 

Fire  doors  and  shutters  of  metal  should  be  in- 
stalled. These  must  not  be  obstructed  by  the  dis- 
posal of  stock  and  must  be  closed  every  night.  Fire 
retardant  paint  should  be  used.  Safety  matches 
should  be  absolutely  required  if  the  use  of  matches, 
is  necessary;  smoking  should  be  rigorously  pro- 
hibited in  all  parts  of  the  building.  A  sufficient 
number  of  chemical  extinguishers  should  be  placed 
in  conspicuous  positions.  They  should  be  supple- 
mented by  hose  reels  or  racks  at  or  near  standpipes, 
by  ladders,  hooks  and  axes.  Elevators  should  be 
enclosed  with  fireproof  material,  stairways  must  be 


LARGE    STRUCTURES          73 

fireproof,  and  wire  glass  windows  and  metal  frames 
should  be  installed  as  protection,  both  against  the 
spread  of  fire  from  within  and  the  contagion  of  fire 
from  without.  Of  the  valuable  sprinkler  systems 
and  the  vital  matter  of  fire  drills  I  propose  to  deal 
in  a  later  chapter,  but  I  may  say  here  that  both  are 
of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  next  consideration,  when  these  matters  of 
construction  and  equipment  have  been  attended  to, 
is  the  organisation  of  a  private  fire  department. 
This  is  an  invaluable  asset  to  the  factory  owner,  the 
tenant  in  the  loft  building  or  anyone  else  employing 
labour.  Its  value  lies  not  merely  in  the  effective  safe- 
guard against  fire  which  it  can  be  made  to  form,  but 
also  in  the  closer  relation  between  employer  and 
employed  which  it  invariably  fosters  and  the  spirit 
of  efficiency  and  smartness  which  it  instills  in  the 
workers. 

Care  and  thoughtful  planning  are  essential  to  the 
success  of  such  an  organisation.  In  the  first  place 
it  is  well  to  allow  the  natural  sequence  of  authority 
in  the  routine  of  every  day  to  prevail  in  the  new  work 
of  the  fire  department.  Thus  the  active  resident 
manager,  the  superintendent  or  whoever  is  in  chief 
authority  on  the  premises  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, is  the  logical  man  to  head  the  fire-fight- 


74  FIRE    PREVENTION 

ers.  The  men  will  readily  obey  him  and  can  thus 
be  handled  with  ease.  He  should  be  assisted  by 
his  next  in  rank  in  the  business  organisation,  by  a 
master  mechanic  or  some  one  else  in  a  position 
of  administrative  dignity  among  the  men. 

Where  the  plant  is  a  large  one  and  the  force  is  to 
be  divided  into  battalions,  it  is  well  to  have  battalion 
chiefs  in  addition,  who  have  the  same  general  quali- 
fications as  their  superiors  and  who  with  profit  could 
be  allowed  to  attain  their  rank  by  excellence  of  ser- 
vice as  captains  of  companies  or  squads  of  men. 
For  the  position  of  captain  a  man  of  mechanical 
ability  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  if  he  has  good 
control  of  the  men  and  is  accustomed  to  command. 
The  inner  organisation  of  each  company  will  neces- 
sarily vary  with  circumstances,  but  a  typical  com- 
pany would  be  composed  somewhat  as  follows: 
Six  pipe  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  hold  and  direct  the 
play  pipes  or  nozzles.  These  men  should  be  se- 
lected with  an  eye  to  their  physical  strength,  as  three 
men  are  often  required  to  properly  handle  a  play 
pipe  when  hose  is  under  high  pressure  or  in  awk- 
ward positions,  such  as  upon  ladders  or  roofs  or  in 
restricted  places,  though  two  are  usually  able  to  keep 
a  stream  in  effective  play  under  normal  conditions. 
One  man  should  be  selected  for  the  special  duty  of 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          75 

turning  on  hydrants,  connecting  the  hose  at  the  hy- 
drant, making  the  necessary  hose  couplings  and  help- 
ing the  others  in  case  of  breaks,  etc.  It  needs  hardly 
be  said  that  each  man  should  be  made  familiar  with 
the  duties  of  the  others  so  that  he  may  perform 
them  in  any  unusual  circumstances.  It  is  well  to 
keep  down  the  number  within  each  company,  for  a 
chief  can  direct  the  battle  against  a  fire  much  better 
through  a  series  of  lieutenants  or  subordinates,  than 
by  direct  orders  to  a  large  number  of  men,  just  as 
is  the  case  with  an  army.  Moreover,  this  system  of 
division  into  small  units  makes  for  rivalry  and 
gives  a  chance  for  promotion ;  both  things  to  be  de- 
sired. Three  companies  go  to  make  up  each  bat- 
talion, which  is  commanded  in  the  manner  already 
indicated. 

Hook  and  ladder  companies  are  excellent  in 
plants  where  there  are  high  buildings.  They  are  to 
be  considered  as  distinct  from  hose  companies  and 
may  well  consist  of  six  men  and  a  captain.  Each 
member  should  be  assigned  to  the  specific  duties  he 
is  to  perform.  Frequently  permanent  ladders  can 
be  fastened  on  the  sides  of  buildings  which  will  aid 
greatly  in  the  work  of  the  ladder  companies.  The 
men  from  whom  companies  of  both  kinds  are  made 
up  should  be  chosen  for  their  strength,  coolness, 


76  FIRE   PREVENTION 

familiarity  with  the  buildings  and  general  reliability. 
If  the  factory  is  in  an  outlying  district  or  typical  mill 
town,  the  men  of  the  private  department  had  best 
be  those  who  live  within  sound  of  the  fire  signal. 
This  provision,  is  of  course,  unnecessary  where  the 
force  is  to  act  simply  in  the  daytime  or  during, 
working  hours,  as  is  nearly  always  the  case  in  large 
cities.  If  the  members  of  the  private  department 
are  to  respond  to  alarms  at  times  other  than  work- 
ing hours  they  should  be  provided  with  suitable 
badges  for  identification. 

I  now  come  to  a  most  important  matter  in  con- 
nection with  a  private  organisation  of  this  charac- 
ter. I  refer  to  drill.  This  is  absolutely  essential 
if  the  department  is  to  be  really  useful  and  worth 
while.  Thorough  drill  should  be  held  at  least  twice 
a  month,  in  which  the  men  connect  hose  with  the  hy- 
drants or  standpipes,  lay  lines,  carry  hose  into  or  up 
the  sides  of  buildings,  and,  in  short,  go  through 
every  operation  that  they  would  perform  in  the  case 
of  a  real  fire,  except  the  turning  on  of  water.  In 
addition  to  these  semi-monthly  drills  there  should 
be  frequent  false  alarms  with  and  without  notice,  so 
that  the  men  may  be  prepared  to  act  promptly  and 
not  be  confused  or  excited  when  the  real  test  comes. 
At  first  care  must  be  taken  not  to  precipitate  a  panic 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          77 

by  such  false  alarms,  but  it  is  surprising  how  soon 
the  various  employees  lay  hold  of  the  spirit  of  the 
thing  and  learn  to  turn  out  in  prompt  order. 

When  it  is  practical  without  doing  damage,  water 
should  be  actually  turned  on  and  in  some  cases  it  is 
even  advisable  to  have  an  expert  who  is  organising 
a  department  actually  start  a  blaze  outside  a  build- 
ing so  that  the  men  may  become  accustomed  to  real 
conditions.  This  last  expedient  is  one  to  be  treated 
with  caution,  it  is  needless  to  say,  but  the  object  of 
the  commanders  or  organisers  is  to  go  through  the 
work  thoroughly  and  inculcate  a  spirit  which  brings 
out  the  men  at  every  alarm  ready  to  face  and  meet 
the  possibility  of  an  actual  fire.  If  water  can  be 
used  without  doing  damage,  it  will  help  to  accustom 
the  men  to  feel  the  weight  of  full  hose  and  make  the 
drill  all  the  more  realistic. 

During  drills  and  at  actual  fires,  hose  which  is 
taken  up  on  ladders  should  have  leather  strap  at- 
tachments to  fasten  to  the  ladders  and  thereby  take 
the  strain  and  recoil  from  the  men.  On  roofs  at 
least  three  men  should  be  stationed  with  each  play 
pipe  and  two  extra  men  should  be  nearly  to  help  in 
case  hose  becomes  unmanageable,  and  to  pass  sig- 
nals. Hose  men  should  be  taught  to  lay  their  lines 
without  twists  or  kinks  or  short  turns,  and  this  ap- 


78  FIRE   PREVENTION 

plies  to  the  elevation  of  the  play  pipe  from  the 
ground  as  well  as  to  the  rest  of  the  hose.  They 
should  also  be  taught  how  to  follow  a  line  or  "  lead  " 
of  hose  in  and  out  of  buildings,  as  this  is  an  invalu- 
able safeguard  when  there  is  dense  smoke,  one  of 
the  easiest  things  in  the  world  in  which  to  get  lost 
or  confused.  Twisting  or  kinking  of  hose  is  likely 
to  cause  bursts  or  to  make  the  play  pipes  practically 
unmanageable,  through  the  force  of  the  recoil. 

In  addition  to  the  men  who  are  to  fight  the  fire 
on  the  scene,  each  private  department  requires  an 
engineer  to  look  after  the  pumps,  whether  they  be 
rotary  or  of  other  type,  to  see  that  an  even  pressure 
is  maintained.  In  most  cases  a  pressure  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  at  the  pump  is  suf- 
ficient, although  the  height  of  the  buildings  involved 
is,  of  course,  a  determining  factor  in  this  matter. 
Arrangements  should  also  be  made  to  have  an  extra 
force  of  men  at  the  boilers  which  are  to  supply  the 
steam  for  the  pumps  during  a  fire,  as  the  demand 
for  steam  for  this  purpose  is  unusually  great  and  is 
often  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  regular  stokers  of 
the  plant.  These  men,  like  all  the  others  of  the  pri- 
vate department,  should  respond  to  station  at  the 
sound  of  the  alarm. 

Care  in  perfecting  a  system  of  alarms  is  an  im- 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          79 

portant  part  in  the  organisation  of  a  private  fire  de- 
partment, such  as  I  have  described.  Steam  whistle 
signals  are  usually  the  most  practicable  for  this  pur- 
pose and  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to  have  one  set 
signal  as  a  general  alarm  to  serve  the  purpose  of 
notifying  the  employees  that  there  is  a  fire.  If  this 
first  signal  is  used  to  show  the  location  of  the  fire  as 
well  as  its  existence,  it  is  apt  to  be  confusing,  for  in 
many  of  the  places  where  private  fire  departments 
are  most  efficacious,  as  for  instance,  factories,  lofts 
and  mills,  there  is  frequently  much  noise  from  ma- 
chinery, which  serves,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
to  drown  the  sound  of  the  alarm  and  tends  to  make 
mistake  easily  possible. 

After  the  first  general  alarm,  therefore,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  have  a  system  of  location  alarms,  which  by 
blowing  certain  numbers  and  simple  combinations 
of  blasts,  will  notify  the  fire-fighters  of  the  location 
of  the  blaze.  At  the  first  or  general  alarm  the  en- 
gineer whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  the  pumps 
should  at  once  repair  to  them  and  in  many  cases 
it  is  well  to  have  him  actually  start  them  before 
waiting  for  any  further  signal,  and  shut  off  all  power 
that  operates  machinery  in  the  building.  At  the 
sounding  of  the  location  alarm,  the  hose  and  ladder 
companies  of  course  repair  to  the  station  indicated, 


8o  FIRE    PREVENTION 

where  they  put  themselves  under  the  orders  of  the 
chief  or  the  battalion  chief  as  the  case  may  be.  This 
system  is  as  readily  carried  out  when  bells  are  used 
to  give  the  alarm  as  when  whistles  are  the  mediums. 

An  extension  of  the  private  fire  department  which 
is  sometimes  advisable  in  large  organisations,  is  to 
have  picked  men  detailed  to  form  a  salvage  corps, 
to  be  provided  with  rubber  sheets  and  other  protec- 
tive devices,  so  that  when  fire  breaks  out  they  can 
at  once  begin  covering  up  and  protecting  perishable 
stock,  and  giving  protection  to  any  pieces  or  parts 
of  machinery  liable  to  water  damage. 

The  plan  of  organisation  of  any  such  private 
body  of  fire-fighters  should  be  posted  conspicuously 
in  all  the  buildings  of  the  plant  in  question,  so  that 
the  men  in  and  out  of  the  department  may  become 
familiar  with  it  readily.  Organisation  is  the  key- 
note here  as  it  is  in  every  branch  of  fire  extinguish- 
ment. The  more  nearly  a  fire  department  ap- 
proaches a  military  organisation  in  matters  of  co- 
operation and  discipline  the  more  effective  it  will  be 
found.  Frequent  inspection  of  apparatus  as  well  as 
frequent  drilling  should  be  the  rule.  In  this  way 
the  condition  of  the  hose  can  be  watched,  and  the 
tools,  such  as  spanners,  crowbars,  axes  and  play 
pipes,  will  not  become  scattered  and  out  of  place. 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          81 

Play  pipes  should,  by  the  way,  be  handled  carefully, 
as  dents  and  imperfections  affect  the  smoothness  of 
their  bore  and  thus  spoil  the  power  and  direction  of 
the  stream  delivered. 

Obviously  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  exact  list  of 
the  number  of  tools  and  pieces  of  equipment  which 
such  a  department  should  have,  in  order  to  be  com- 
pletely fitted;  this  is  a  matter  which  is  relative  and 
which  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  building  or 
property  protected.  The  nature  of  the  implements, 
however,  can  be  given  and  the  following  list  in- 
cludes the  chief  requirements: 

Hose  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  concentrate  the 
entire  capacity  of  the  water  supply  on  any  given 
section  or  building.  Plenty  of  standard  play  pipes 
and  nozzles,  so  that  there  need  be  no  delay  in  gather- 
ing them  when  a  number  of  streams  are  simultane- 
ously desired.  Fire  axes  and  bars  of  standard  pat- 
tern in  generous  quantities,  to  be  carried  on  hose 
and  ladder  wagons.  A  plentiful  supply  of  span- 
ners, to  be  carried  on  the  hose  carts  and  at  the  mens' 
belts.  Coils  of  inch  and  a  quarter  rope  provided 
with  snap  hooks  at  the  ends.  These  ropes  should 
have  a  length  sufficient  to  reach  the  ground  from  the 
top  of  the  highest  buildings  in  the  plant.  Plenty  of 
fire  lanterns  of  a  pattern  in  which  the  lamp  will  not 


82  FIRE    PREVENTION 

drop  through  the  bottom  of  the  frame  or  be  ex- 
tinguished by  water  striking  the  lantern. 

In  addition  to  these  pieces  of  what  may  be  called 
offensive  equipment,  arrangement  should  be  made 
to  hoist  hose  clear  of  the  ground  to  dry.  The  hose 
should  hang  vertically  from  supports  by  the  male 
coupling  so  that  it  can  drain  properly.  The  sup- 
ports must  be  high  enough  to  accommodate  the 
standard  hose  length  of  fifty  feet. 

So  much  for  the  private  department  itself.  But 
of  its  relations  to  the  public  department,  paid  or 
volunteer,  there  is  more  to  be  said.  The  private 
department  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  a  law  unto 
itself  or  as  a  sole  reliance  for  putting  out  fires. 
Very  often  it  will  suffice  if  properly  trained  and  of- 
ficered, but  the  members  should  be  thoroughly  im- 
bued with  the  idea  that  they  are  to  work  in  harmony 
with  the  regular  fire-fighting  organisation  of  what- 
ever place  they  may  be  inhabitants.  There  should 
be  no  rivalry  between  the  proper  regular  or  public 
department  and  the  proper  private  department; 
rather  there  should  be  thorough  co-operation.  Clear 
instructions  on  this  point  should  form  a  part  of  the 
notice  posted  in  relation  to  the  private  department 
itself,  and  the  men  should  not  be  allowed  to  have 
any  hazy  ideas  of  their  own  rights  in  working  the 


LARGE   STRUCTURES          83 

private  apparatus  or  of  the  rights  of  entry  and  ac- 
cess of  the  public  department  in  time  of  fire. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  foster  a  friendly  feeling 
between  the  two  organisations  by  inviting  that  of 
the  city,  or  that  part  of  it  which  will  respond  in  case 
of  fire,  into  the  premises  and  allowing  its  members 
to  become  familiar  with  the  locations  of  apparatus 
and  valves,  with  special  danger  points  and  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  buildings  and  the  points  of  exit 
and  escape.  By  such  a  programme  of  mutiral  help 
and  understanding,  a  much  more  effective  front  can 
be  presented  to  the  common  enemy  when  the  crucial 
time  comes  and  the  property  owner  will  find  himself 
in  much  more  secure  position  than  if  he  permitted 
any  friction  between  the  forces  at  his  disposal. 


CHAPTER  V 

PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  IN  LARGE  BUILDINGS 

IMPORTANT  as  the  saving  of  property  is,  its  impor- 
tance pales  into  insignificance  as  compared  with  the 
saving  of  human  life.  Moreover,  by  one  of  those 
strange  contradictions,  so  frequently  found,  appal- 
ling as  is  the  carelessness  of  property  which  we  show 
as  a  nation,  our  national  carelessness  of  life,  as  far 
as  fire  is  concerned,  is  even  greater.  No  one  knows 
the  truth  of  this  assertion  better  than  the  man  whose 
business  it  is  to  fight  fire  and  who  sees  every  day  of 
his  life  some  example  of  this  criminal  disregard  for 
the  safety  of  human  beings,  which  seems  to  be  the 
habit  of  all  classes  of  the  community  and  even  of 
the  community  itself.  In  my  long  experience  in 
New  York  City  I  have  seen  enough  of  this  sort  of 
thing  to  make  a  man  a  misanthrope  and  pessimist 
and  have  wished  many  a  time  that  I  could  wreak 
some  personal  vengeance  on  the  persons  who  were 
responsible  for  the  snuffing  out  of  innocent  lives. 
The  question  of  the  protection  of  life  from  the 
84 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE         85 

dangers  of  fire  and  smoke  and  their  accompaniments 
is  well-nigh  all-embracing;  that  is  to  say,  it  applies 
to  the  home  and  the  huge  hotel,  the  tiny  shop  and 
the  great  factory,  the  workroom  and  the  school. 
Its  terrible  gravity  in  every  case,  however,  from  the 
dwelling  to  the  crowded  theatre,  hangs  on  one  word 
— panic.  Some  people  may  say,  "  Oh,  well,  if  it's 
panic,  that  is  the  fault  of  the  people  themselves, 
not  of  the  owner,  the  employer,  the  manager  or  the 
municipality." 

There  is  a  grain  of  truth  in  this  argument  which 
gives  it  plausibility,  but  only  a  grain.  For  panic 
is  due  to  lack  of  training,  lack  of  organisation, 
lack  of  drill,  lack  of  direction.  It  can  be  avoided, 
it  can  often  be  stopped  after  it  has  gained  some 
headway.  Certainly  the  responsibility  cannot  be 
thus  lightly  put  off,  and  the  shocking  disasters  with 
which  everyone  is  familiar  laid  by  with  a  word. 

I  am  willing  to  assert  that  ninety-nine  out  of  every 
hundred  lives  that  have  been  lost  through  fire  in  the 
last  ten  years,  not  counting  members  of  the  fire  de- 
partments, could  have  been  saved,  if  proper  methods 
of  drill  and  of  training  and  proper  precautions  in 
matters  of  building  and  means  of  escape  had  been 
the  rule  instead  of  the  rare  exception.  That  is  the 
tragedy  of  it  to  one  who  has  seen  so  many  go' to  a 


86  FIRE    PREVENTION 

fearful  death.  It  could  have  been  avoided  so  easily, 
by  the  exercise  of  such  a  modicum  of  intelligence 
and  forethought. 

Of  matters  of  construction  and  of  fire-escapes  I 
shall  speak  later;  just  now  I  am  concerned  with 
some  of  the  simple,  elemental  things  which  can  and 
imperatively  ought  to  be  done  to  bring  down  the 
annual  roll  of  human  sacrifices  to  the  fire  god. 

Drill,  is  the  first  consideration.  In  the  home  this 
consists  merely  of  having  every  member  of  the 
household  thoroughly  posted  as  to  the  means  of  es- 
cape and  the  position  and  direction  of  opening  of 
all  doors.  In  the  large  building,  the  loft,  the  office 
building,  and  the  factory,  it  is  different  only  in  de- 
gree. In  structures  of  this  nature  conditions  are 
necessarily  different  from  those  of  the  dwelling,  be- 
cause of  the  addition  of  the  element  of  congestion, 
and  that  of  the  inflammable  and  quick  burning  na- 
ture of  the  contents  in  many  cases.  This  element 
or  factor  of  congestion  makes  the  introduction  of 
drill,  of  systematic  plans  of  escape,  all  the  more 
vitally  necessary.  As  I  shall  endeavour  to  show, 
there  is  nothing  difficult  about  such  drills,  they  are 
absurdly  and  pathetically  simple. 

Let  us  first  take,  for  example,  a  typical  loft  build- 
ing, such  as  now  exist  by  the  hundred  in  Manhat- 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE         87 

tan.  It  is,  say,  ten  stories  high.  There  are  four 
tenants.  One  occupies  the  first  two  stories  with  a 
feather  business;  wholesale  salesrooms  on  the  first 
floor,  manufacturing  going  on  on  the  second.  The 
next  two  floors  are  occupied  by  a  milliner,  who  uses 
both  of  them  as  workshops.  Above  him  for  three 
floors  are  the  cutting  and  sewing  rooms  of  a  cloak 
maker,  while  the  three  upper  stories  are  occupied  by 
a  manufacturer  of  shirt  waists  who  uses  them  all 
as  work  rooms.  With  some  shifting  of  the  loca- 
tion of  the  various  trades  there  are  scores  of  build- 
ings occupied  in  just  the  above  way  in  New  York 
City  and  in  many  of  our  other  large  cities  the  coun- 
try over. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  occupation  in  this 
building  is  dangerous  and  deserving  of  extreme  pre- 
caution, in  the  matter  of  fire.  All  the  goods  which 
are  being  worked  are  inflammable,  some  of  them, 
the  feathers  and  the  shirt  waist  materials,  highly  so. 
There  are,  perhaps,  eight  hundred  persons  employed 
in  this  building.  The  large  majority  of  them  are 
women  and  girls.  Here  you  have  an  ideal  setting 
for  a  fire  tragedy,  and  it  has  often  seemed  to  me 
fairly  miraculous  that  the  long  list  of  fatalities  in 
such  places  has  not  been  even  longer. 

Let  us  see  what  happens  in  such  a  building  under 


88  FIRE    PREVENTION 

present  conditions  at  the  outbreak  of  fire.  The 
blaze  starts,  let  us  say,  on  the  fourth  floor,  in  a  pile 
of  braided  straw  which  is  being  worked  into  hats. 
Its  origin  may  be  one  of  a  dozen  things;  a  lighted 
cigarette,  carelessly  dropped;  a  spark  from  a  bit  of 
defective  insulation  on  an  electrically  operated 
stitching  machine ;  heat  from  a  friction  belt  or  pulley 
of  the  wrong  material,  or  what  not.  There  is  a  curl 
of  smoke  and  a  little  tongue  of  flame. 

A  girl  sitting  at  the  nearest  machine  or  table  sees 
it.  She  leaps  up  and  yells  "  Fire !  "  shrieking  as  hard 
as  she  can.  In  the  space  of  a  breath  the  room  is  in 
pandemonium.  The  girls — sixty  or  seventy  of  them 
— are  all  on  their  feet,  jamming  each  other  against 
the  rows  of  machines,  yelling,  trampling  on  each 
other  in  their  frantic  efforts  to  get  to  the  exit  they 
ordinarly  use,  an  elevator  or  a  staircase.  In  the 
flimsy  material  the  fire  is  spreading  fast.  But  it  is 
still  the  merest  infant  fire,  making  a  good  deal  of 
smoke  and  a  little  more  heat,  but  still  capable  of 
quick  extinction  even  with  a  chemical  extinguisher. 
On  the  floors  above  and  below  that  in  which  the  fire 
is,  panic  also  holds  sway;  the  garment  workers,  the 
feather  workers,  the  shirt  waist  workers,  remember- 
ing other  horrors,  stampede  without  any  cause,  like 
sheep  determined  to  be  slaughtered.  The  doors — 


Interior  of  the  Parker  Building,  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York 
The  effect  of  great  heat.     Note  poor  protective  covering  of  columns. 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE        89 

many  of  which  probably  open  inward  and  some  of 
which  may  be  locked,  because  of  greed  of  the  em- 
ployers who  must  inspect  each  worker  as  she  goes 
out  at  night  to  see  that  no  thread  of  material  is  car- 
ried home — are  scenes  of  human  ferocity  too  hor- 
rible to  tell.  By  the  time  the  first  piece  of  fire 
apparatus  comes  rushing  up  in  response  to  an  alarm, 
sent  in  by  a  policeman  or  a  passerby — that  is  within 
five  minutes  of  the  first  shriek  of  "  Fire !  " — fantas- 
tic bundles  which  look  like  great  bolts  of  cloth,  but 
are  in  fact  women  and  girls,  are  whirling  and  twist- 
ing down  from  the  windows  from  which  they 
jumped  or  have  been  pushed,  to  the  stone  pavement 
fifty  or  more  feet  below. 

On  the  floor  where  the  fire  started  the  heat 
from  the  now  roaring  furnace  of  light  material  is 
intense  and  the  unfortunates  who  cannot  reach  the 
windows  are  shrivelled  up  in  its  breath  like  so  many 
pieces  of  paper. 

Perhaps  you  think  this  is  an  exaggerated  or  sen- 
sational account  of  a  hypothetical  case.  It  is  not. 
Just  that  very  thing  happened  in  March,  1911,  at 
the  "  Triangle  Waist  "  fire  in  Washington  Place,  ex- 
cept that  there  the  fire  was  on  the  ninth  and  tenth 
floors.  When  the  toll  was  complete  one  hundred 
and  forty-six  persons  had  lost  their  lives.  "  An  ex- 


90  FIRE    PREVENTION 

ceptional  case,"  you  say,  "  would  not  happen  again 
in  a  life-time."  On  the  contrary  it  could  happen 
in  a  hundred  buildings  that  I  could  mention  in  this 
one  city.  It  could  happen  any  day,  at  any  time, 
even  now,  as  I  write  these  words. 

I  do  not  believe  that  any  one  will  argue  the  point 
of  the  shame  and  wickedness  of  conditions  which  al- 
low such  calamities  to  be  possible.  That  is  not  the 
question.  The  question  is,  what  is  to  be  done  to 
change  these  conditions  and  make  them  impossible? 
For  an  illustration  let  us  take  the  same  suppositi- 
tious case  as  before.  The  same  sort  of  fire  starts 
in  the  same  way,  in  the  same  place. 

Perhaps  the  same  thing  happens  up  to  the  point 
where  the  original  girl  cries  "  Fire!  "  But  thereaf- 
ter all  things  are  different. 

Every  girl  stands  stock  still  at  her  machine  until 
the  leader  of  her  squad  or  division  moves  forward, 
and  she  in  turn  does  not  move  forward  until  the  di- 
vision between  her  and  the  nearest  exit  has  begun  to 
move,  then  she  walks — not  runs — ahead  and  the 
girls  under  her  leadership  follow  in  single  file.  Not 
one  stops  or  falls  out  of  line,  either  to  get  her  coat 
or  for  any  other  purpose,  but  all  march  steadily  and 
without  pause,  through  the  door  that  opens  outward 
and  is  not  locked,  down  the  stairway — or  down  the 


PROTECTION    OB   LIFE        91 

fire-escape  or  up  to  the  roof,  as  the  case  may  be, 
until  the  floor  is  clear.  Meantime,  the  foreman  of 
the  floor,  the  manager,  or  whoever  is  in  chief  au- 
thority, seeing  that  there  is  indeed  a  fire,  has  broken 
the  glass  of  the  building  alarm  box  or  sent  in  a  tele- 
phone call  for  the  fire  department,  and,  if  there  are 
other  menon  the  floor  or  there  is  a  private  fire  de- 
partment, has  taken  charge  of  the  work  of  fighting 
the  blaze  and  very  likely  has  extinguished  it  by  the 
time  the  first  engine  comes  rolling  up.  At  any  rate 
his  work  has  been  of  material  assistance  to  the  de- 
partment in  keeping  the  blaze  down  and  dampening 
its  ardour.  The  result  is  no  loss  of  life  and  a  money 
loss  comparatively  trifling.  The  employees  may 
even  be  able  to  return  to  work  in  an  hour  or  two 
when  all  traces  of  fire  are  out  and  the  work  of  clean- 
ing up  has  been  finished. 

But  how  is  this  miracle  worked?  That  is  a  na- 
tural question.  But  it  is  not  a  miracle  at  all,  simply 
the  result  of  regular  drill  strictly  enforced  and  the 
banishment  thereby  of  the  element  of  panic.  This 
case,  like  that  of  the  holocaust  of  the  Triangle  fire, 
is  not  a  dream.  With  minor  variations  it  has  been 
enacted  scores  of  times,  and  indeed  it  was  exempli- 
fied but  a  few  weeks  after  that  awful  disaster  in  a 
factory  fire  in  Hell's  Kitchen.  Not  long  ago  a  fac- 


92  FIRE    PREVENTION 

tt>ry  was  emptied  at  a  test  with  false  alarm  in  one 
minute.  It  had  one  thousand  occupants.  Before 
the  system  of  drills  had  been  adopted  it  required 
seven  minutes  to  empty  the  same  factory  and  panic 
was  the  rule  whenever  the  alarm  sounded,  whether 
there  was  a  fire  or  not. 

Fire  drills,  to  be  effective  and  to  fulfil  their  pur- 
pose, must  be  rigidly  enforced  and  practiced.  In 
most  cases  the  owner  bears  the  expense  of  drills  of 
this  kind,  but  I  have  found  that  the  owner  with  any 
intelligence  is  more  than  ready  to  bear  this  trifling 
expense  in  loss  of  workers'  time,  once  he  has  been 
shown  the  inestimable  advantage  to  himself,  from 
the  practical  as  well  as  the  humanitarian  point  of 
view,  which  the  drill  will  inevitably  bring.  Even  in 
the  case  of  piece  workers,  the  drill  is  popular;  not  a 
few  of  these  men  and  women  have  lost  relatives  or 
friends  in  loft  or  factory  fires;  nearly  all  save  the 
newly  arrived  immigrants  realise  their  danger,  and 
are  glad  of  this  measure  of  protection  even  at  a  sac- 
rifice. 

The  problem  of  the  immigrant  is  a  special  one. 
Few  persons  save  those  who  have  been  brought  in 
practical  contact  with  the  working  conditions  of  a 
great  city  and  especially  of  New  York,  know  how 
many  of  the  operatives  in  any  given  workshop,  or 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE         93 

sweatshop,  or  factory  are  strangers  from  foreign 
shores  who  have  been  in  this  country  but  a  few 
months  or  weeks  or  days.  Naturally  these  people 
know  nothing  of  the  language  or  the  customs  of 
their  new  environment.  They  certainly  do  not  ap- 
preciate signs  posted  in  English  or  directions  given 
in  English.  For  them  the  danger  is  therefore  om- 
nipresent. For  this  reason  all  instructions  for  fire 
drills  should  be  printed  in  the  language  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  workers  in  a  given  shop;  in  two  or 
three  languages  if  necessary,  in  addition  to  English. 
If  the  owner  or  the  employer  is  disinclined  to  do  this 
on  any  grounds,  he  should  be  forced  to  by  law,  just 
as  he  should  be  compelled  by  law  to  institute  drills. 
It  was  established  by  the  fire  marshal  after  the 
Washington  Place  fire,  that  a  number  of  the  girls 
who  lost  their  lives  as  well  as  a  number  who  were 
lucky  enough  to  escape  did  not  know  a  word  of 
English  and  had  been  in  this  country  but  a  very 
short  time.  Many  of  them  had  no  idea  that  they 
could  have  escaped  by  two  different  stairways ;  they 
knew  of  the  existence  of  but  one.  Such  conditions 
are  in  the  highest  degree  reprehensible.  It  is  a  blot 
on  civilisation  that  they  should  continue  to  exist. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FURTHER  MEASURES  FOR  PROTECTING  LIFE 

I  do  not  want  to  be  understood  as  asserting  that  fire 
drills  alone  will  safeguard  the  workers  in  the  human 
hives  of  industry  which  now  crowd  the  great  cities 
of  this  country,  the  inmates  of  hospitals  and  asy- 
lums, school  children,  persons  at  theatres,  dwellers 
in  hotels,  shoppers  in  department  stores,  or  any 
other  class  of  persons  which,  by  the  nature  of  its 
occupation  or  amusement,  finds  itself  placed  under 
conditions  of  crowding  and  congestion.  Drills  are 
only  one  of  the  important  measures  which  seem  to 
me  imperative  in  order  to  cast  a  proper  protection 
around  such  persons.  Alone,  they  would  often 
prove  ineffective,  as  the  best  drill  in  the  world  can- 
not take  persons  down  burning  stairways  or  hot  fire- 
escapes. 

As  a  complement  to  fire  drills  then,  or  perhaps 
rather  as  a  basis  upon  which  they  can  be  instituted, 
all  buildings  in  which  numbers  of  persons  congre- 
gate must  be  provided  with  proper  and  sufficient 

94 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE        95 

exits.  This  is  a  simple  matter  in  the  case  of  the  one- 
story  factory  isolated  in  position,  or  located  on  a 
street  corner.  There,  large  doors  swinging  outward 
will  allow  the  building  to  empty  its  human  contents 
into  the  street  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  But  with 
every  story  that  is  added  to  a  building  an  additional 
difficulty  presents  itself,  until  at  ten  or  twelve  stories, 
with  a  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  persons  housed  on 
a  floor,  the  problem  seems,  at  first  glance,  to  balk 
any  attempt  at  solution,  on  architectural  and  struc- 
tural grounds  alone.  It  must  be  admitted  that  with 
many  of  our  buildings  as  they  now  stand,  readjust- 
ment to  safe  conditions  seems  well-nigh  impossible. 
But  the  difficulties  are  not  as  insuperable  as  they 
may  at  first  appear.  Several  alternatives  present 
themselves  after  consideration.  In  the  first  place, 
the  actual  exit  facilities  can  be  increased  by  adding 
stairways  and  fire-escapes.  Secondly,  the  number 
of  workers  on  a  floor  can  be  limited  to  fit  the  means 
of  exit  already  existent,  whose  capacity  can  be  tested 
by  a  fire  drill  test.  Thirdly,  height  to  which  build- 
ings should  be  erected  can  be  restricted.  Fourthly, 
new  fire-escape  systems  can  be  adopted,  totally  dif- 
ferent in  character  from  the  present  familiar  succes- 
sion of  ladders  and  platforms  clinging  to  the  out- 
side of  buildings.  Fifthly,  the  devotion  of  build- 


96  FIRE 'PREVENTION 

ings  within  the  crowded  city  districts  to  mercantile 
uses  can  be  prohibited,  and  thus  they  may  be  forced 
to  locate  in  the  suburbs  where  more  room  and  lower 
real  estate  prices  lessen  the  temptation  to  high  build- 
ing. Lastly,  the  incorporation  of  fire  walls  can  be 
enforced  in  all  structures  of  the  crowded,  and  there- 
fore hazardous,  kind. 

Some  of  these  possiblities  are  practicable,  others 
are  not.  I  will  take  them  up  seriatim. 

While  it  is  highly  essential  to  increase  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  stairways  and  escapes  in  a  great 
number  of  large  buildings,  it  is  manifestly  impos- 
sible to  make  them  entirely  adequate,  except  under 
exceptional  circumstances,  where  adjoining  roofs,  for 
instance,  can  be  utilised  as  havens  of  safety  in  addi- 
tion to  the  street.  To  be  truly  adequate  there 
should  be  two  stairways  with  exits  independent  of 
each  other  and  of  those  from  other  stories  for  each 
floor  of  a  building.  They  should  be  wide  enough 
to  accommodate  two  persons  abreast.  With  some  of 
our  modern  office  buildings  or  lofts,  built  upon  a 
comparatively  minute  ground  area  and  shooting  up 
from  ten  to  thirty  stories  in  the  air,  this  would  be 
physically  impossible  even  if  the  entire  exposed  sur- 
face of  the  building  at  the  street  level  were  com- 
posed of  nothing  but  the  mouths  of  stairways. 


PQ 
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4-1     T3 
b£     C 

.5  8 

1  1 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE        97 

I  do  not  mean  by  thus  pointing  out  the  impossi- 
bility of  carrying  adequacy  of  exit  facility,  from  the 
fire  protection  standpoint,  to  its  conclusion,  to  decry 
improvements  which  approach,  even  in  a  limited 
way,  the  ideal.  We  should  and  we  must  have  more 
stairways,  wider  stairways,  properly  enclosed  stair- 
ways and  plainly  marked  and  straight  stairways. 

To  limit  the  numbers  of  workers  so  that  each 
floor  would  carry  no  more  than  the  exits  could  ade- 
quately accommodate  in  times  of  escape  from  fire 
would  be  delightful,  but  economic  conditions  make 
it  a  dream  impossible  of  realisation. 

Less  impracticable,  I  believe,  though  I  know  the 
ever-increasing  competition  of  skyscrapers  for  new 
records  in  stories  and  feet  will  apparently  contradict 
me,  is  a  plan  to  place  a  legal  limit  on  the  height  of 
buildings.  Even  St.  Petersburg  is  more  progres- 
sive than  New  York  in  this  regard.  There  the  legal 
limit  is  seventy-seven  feet.  The  danger  from  fire 
to  themselves,  to  their  occupants  and  to  neighbour- 
ing structures  may  be  said  to  increase  almost  in  geo- 
metrical progression  after  eight  or  ten  stories  or 
eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  have  been  reached.  I 
hope  the  time  will  come  when  lawmakers  will  take 
cognisance  of  this  growing  risk. 

The  field  of  new  fire-escapes  is  a   fertile  one, 


98  FIRE    PREVENTION 

and  in  it  there  is  vast  room  for  improvement. 
A  device  more  futile  or  treacherous  than  the 
average  present-day  fire-escape  would  be  hard  to 
devise.  True,  many  lives  have  been  saved  by 
means  of  them,  because  any  additional  means 
of  escape  or  of  rescue  is  of  value;  but  a  great 
number  of  lives,  I  believe,  have  been  lost  as  well. 
Usually  of  material  too  light  to  stand  the  strain 
they  are  called  upon  to  bear  in  times  to  crowd- 
ing and  emergency,  they  are  also,  in  many  cases,  im- 
properly anchored  to  the  walls,  tearing  away  and 
sagging  under  the  weight  of  thronging  bodies. 
They  are  often  improperly  provided  with  guard 
rails  and  handrails,  both  on  the  platforms  and  the 
ladders.  Ladders  with  thin  round  rungs,  or  very 
narrow  and  steep  stairs  with  high  rise  and  scanty 
tread  are  all  too  frequent.  They  readily  become 
hot  and  many  an  unfortunate  has  been  severely 
burned  on  them,  or  driven  back  into  the  furnace,  as 
was  the  case  at  the  famous  fire  in  the  Windsor 
Hotel,  in  the  Washington  Place  fire  already  men- 
tioned and  in  scores  of  minor  disasters  in  tenement 
houses,  lofts  and  hotels  throughout  the  country. 

In  addition  to  all  the  above  defects,  escapes  often 
terminate  before  they  reach  the  ground  or  are  pro- 
vided with  a  drop  ladder  which  could  only  be  ma- 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE         99 

nipulated  by  a  strong  man  with  plenty  of  time  and 
which  is  an  absolute  check  to  women  and  children  in 
time  of  excitement. 

It  is  true  that  escapes  of  the  now  familiar  type 
must  long  remain  and  that  thousands  of  them  will 
be  placed  on  new  buildings,  but  certain  modifica- 
tions and  improvements  are  essential  to  make  them 
aught  but  a  delusion  and  a  snare.  They  must  be 
firmly  anchored  to  stand  any  human  weight  which 
will  be  placed  upon  them.  They  must  have  guard 
rails,  or  much  better,  be  entirely  enclosed  with  metal 
mesh  so  arranged  that  when  crowded  those  persons 
nearest  the  edge  will  not  be  forced  over  and  off. 
They  must  have  stairs  with  at  least  a  four-inch 
tread  and  not  more  than  a  nine-inch  rise,  at  a  pitch 
of  not  more  than  fifty  degress.  The  balconies 
should  be  not  less  than  four  feet  wide.  The  last 
flight  of  steps  should  extend  to  the  ground  or  be 
of  the  so-called  "  counter-balanced "  type,  which, 
when  not  in  use,  hangs  in  a  position  horizontal  to 
the  ground,  but  when  the  weight  of  a  person  is  put 
upon  it,  it  sinks  gradually  as  he  descends  until  the 
ground  is  reached. 

Two  points  which  are  frequently  overlooked  in 
connection  with  fire-escapes  of  any  type,  but  which 
are  of  the  utmost  importance  are  these:  First,  the 


ioo          FIRE    PREVENTION 

windows  opposite  them  should  be  of  wired  glass  and 
have  metal  frames  to  prevent  flames  from  licking 
out  below  those  who  are  descending  and  thus  cutting 
off  their  escape  or  rendering  the  metal  platforms 
and  stairs  hot.  Secondly,  the  windows  or  doors 
which  lead  out  on  them  should  be  cut  down  to  the 
level  of  the  floor,  and  the  platform  of  the  fire-es- 
cape should  be  at  this  level  also.  The  neglect  of 
this  one  factor  has  led  to  many  deaths.  The  first 
person  to  reach  the  door  or  window  to  the  escape 
has  found  a  casement  two  feet  or  more  in  height; 
in  his  haste  he  has  tripped  and  fallen.  In  an  instant 
those  behind  have  piled  upon  him  and  at  once  the 
stage  is  set  for  one  of  the  most  horrible  scenes  a 
fireman  is  called  on  to  witness:  a  heap  of  charred 
bodies  contorted  in  a  last  agony  of  effort  to  reach 
comparative  safety,  but  a  few  feet  beyond.  I  have 
seen  this  very  thing  many  times,  merely  because  the 
room  floor  and  the  fire-escape  balcony  were  not  on 
a  level  or  were  separated  by  some  trifling  barrier. 
In  a  Bowery  lodging  house  eleven  persons  lost  their 
lives  from  this  cause. 

Better  by  far  than  the  present  type  of  fire-escape, 
and  destined,  I  believe,  to  supersede  it,  is  the  long 
balcony  and  fire  tower  type.  In  this  type  of  escape 
a  wide  balcony  or  platform  extends  along  the  en- 


PROTECTION    OFl  L 1  F  F,       i  »i 

tire  side  or  front  of  a  building.  It  is  enclosed  by 
strong  wire  mesh  and  ends,  on  both  sides  preferably, 
in  an  enclosed  or  partially  enclosed  fireproof  tower, 
which  may  be  built  within  the  building  line,  but  must 
have  separate  inner  walls.  Within  this  tower  are 
easy  flights  of  steps  leading  to  the  street.  No  in- 
side entrance  may  be  had  to  the  tower  save  by  means 
of  the  escape  balconies. 

This  form  of  fire-escape  is  applicable  to  the  loft 
building,  the  factory,  the  mill,  the  hotel  or  any 
other  building  where  a  large  number  of  people  con- 
gregate. Against  its  adoption  the  argument  has 
been  advanced  that  it  is  unsightly.  It  is  certainly 
not  highly  decorative,  but  it  is  my  belief  that  human 
life  is  a  bit  more  important  than  beauty  in  work- 
shops and  manufactories,  and  I  am  convinced  that 
the  worker  in  the  sweat  shop,  the  factory  operative 
and  the  mill  hand  will  be  more  appreciative  of  a 
chance  to  get  out  with  a  whole  skin  when  there  is  a 
fire  than  he  will  be  of  the  architectural  effect  of  the 
building  in  which  he  works. 

Another  type  of  escape  is  a  modification  of  this 
one.  It  has  not  been  very  completely  tested,  but 
nevertheless  has  been  shown  to  be  practicable.  In 
this  variation  the  fire  tower  at  the  balcony  end  con- 
tains, instead  of  stairways,  a  spiral  chute  or  slide 


ro2          FIRE    PREVENTION 

with  smooth  floor  and  smooth  or  padded  sides. 
This  sounds  more  like  a  Coney  Island  catch-penny 
device  than  an  actual  fire  protection  innovation,  but 
tests  in  a  certain  school  have  shown  that  it  will  de- 
liver the  occupants  of  a  building  to  the  street  in 
safety,  in  a  surprisingly  short  time.  Of  course,  the 
speed  at  which  they  travel  down  is  checked  by  the 
spirals,  but  if  rightly  constructed  there  is  no  chance 
of  choking  and  jamming,  with  possible  injury  to  the 
users. 

Still  another  form  of  escape  which  is  being  in- 
stalled at  present  on  some  of  our  newer  buildings 
of  good  construction,  is  a  modification  of  the  balcony 
and  fire  tower  type.  In  one  case  which  I  have  in 
mind,  there  are  three  projecting  extensions,  four  to 
five  feet  wide,  at  intervals  on  the  back  of  the  build- 
ing. They  are  of  steel  construction  just  like  the 
rest  of  the  structure  and  are  enclosed  on  two  sides 
in  addition  to  that  next  the  building,  thus  leaving 
only  the  rear  exposure  unwalled.  Even  this  Is  not 
entirely  open,  but  is  protected  by  strong  mesh  or 
grill  work.  The  characteristic  feature  of  these  es- 
capes is  the  fact  that  the  stairways  which  they  con- 
tain are  placed  not  on  the  building  side,  against  the 
walls,  but  on  the  outer  side.  By  this  method  a 
roomy  balcony  or  platform  is  left  in  front  of  each 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE       103 

of  the  window  or  door  exits  from  the  building,  and 
the  stairways  themselves,  protected  by  handrails 
and  provided  with  broad  treads,  are  neither  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  nor  situated  in  the  vertical  path  of 
the  greatest  volume  of  flame  or  smoke.  The  plan 
is  an  excellent  one  and  might  well  be  adopted  on 
many  buildings  of  large  size  which  must  be  arranged 
to  empty  their  occupants  speedily. 

As  to  the  forcing  out  of  buildings  which  are  put 
to  manufacturing  uses  from  the  hearts  of  great 
cities,  I  am  again  optimistic.  With  improved  con- 
ditions of  rapid  transit  it  is  becoming  increasingly 
convenient  for  an  owner  or  a  manufacturing  lessee 
to  carry  on  his  business  in  outlying  districts  or  in 
the  suburbs.  Indeed,  this  movement  out  of  the  con- 
gested districts,  where  rents  are  necessarily  very 
high  and  area  necessarily  limited,  is  already  notice- 
able. I  even  have  enough  faith  in  the  good  sense 
of  American  cities  to  believe  that  they  will  in  time 
cause  laws  to  be  passed  forbidding  the  carrying  on  of 
manufacturing  business  on  any  large  scale  within  the 
crowded  districts  or  in  portions  where  the  fire  haz- 
ard is  especially  great.  This  would  be  a  most  de- 
sirable step  on  the  road  of  progress,  and  should  be 
deeply  thought  on  by  all  who  are  anxious  to  lessen 
the  fire  burden  of  loss  and  death  under  which  we 


io4          FIRE    PREVENTION 

are  now  suffering.  In  this  matter,  as  indeed  in  the 
whole  matter  of  fire  prevention,  it  is  well  to  look 
beyond  the  makeshifts  and  expedients  of  to-day  to 
the  upbuilding  and  the  safeguarding  of  the  future. 

A  more  immediate  measure  of  protection  for 
buildings  where  people  congregate  in  numbers  to 
work,  to  live,  to  learn  or  to  play,  is  the  incorpora- 
tion of  a  system  of  fire  walls.  This  is  a  most 
effective  safeguard  to  life  and  consists,  in  princi- 
ple, of  bisecting  a  building  or  further  subdividing 
it  into  compartments  of  safety,  much  after  the  man- 
ner of  dividing  a  vessel  into  water-tight  compart- 
ments. It  is  not  a  new  idea  and  has  worked  well  in 
practice,  but  it  has  been  brought  into  play  in  a  sur- 
prisingly small  number  of  cases. 

In  the  simplest  type  of  this  form  of  construction 
it  is  merely  necessary  to  have  a  fireproof  wall  divid- 
ing the  building  from  top  to  bottom  into  two  parts. 
This  plan  does  not  present  any  great  architectural 
difficulties  and  often  lends  itself  to  typical  large 
building  construction.  The  wall  is  pierced  on  every 
floor  by  fireproof  doors,  self-closing  or  of  a  type 
which  must  be  closed  by  hand.  Needless  to  say 
these  should  never  be  locked.  Should  a  fire  break 
out  in  any  part  of  the  building,  it  is  only  necessary 
for  the  occupants  of  that  side,  previously  instructed 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE       105 

as  to  their  movements  by  a  fire  drill,  to  step  through 
these  doorways  and  close  the  doors  behind  them,  if 
they  be  not  self-closing,  in  order  to  find  themselves 
in  an  immune  structure.  It  is  almost  as  if  they 
were  in  another  building  entirely. 

Several  common  dangers  of  fires  in  large  build- 
ings are  to  be  avoided  by  this  device.  It  is  too 
often  the  case  that  fire,  spreading  from  one  side  of 
a  building  to  another  side,  cuts  off  the  escapes  and 
stairways  on  both  sides  before  the  occupants  can 
make  their  way  to  safety.  Flames,  licking  out  of 
windows,  turn  those  trying  to  get  out  back  upon 
themselves  on  the  escapes;  stairways  are  filled  with 
smoke;  elevator  shafts  are  rendered  useless  from 
the  same  cause.  Once  beyond  the  fireproof  wall, 
however,  these  conditions  no  longer  exist  and  the 
persons  seeking  to  escape  find  themselves  in  a  build- 
ing free  from  smoke  and  flame,  with  all  its  regular 
means  of  exit  unimpaired. 

In  many  cases  they  may  even  remain  in  the  build- 
ing in  perfect  safety  until  the  fire  in  the  other  part 
is  extinguished,  or,  if  it  is  deemed  more  advisable, 
they  may  make  their  exit  without  hurry  or  rush  and 
unimpeded  by  smoke  or  flame.  Two  things  are 
necessary  to  make  this  device  effective — a  fire  wall 
and  doors  that  are  fireproof,  and  drill  which  will 


106          FIRE    PREVENTION 

lead  to  the  instant  closing  of  the  doors,  if  they  are 
not  automatic,  when  the  last  occupant  of  the  burn- 
ing side  has  come  through. 

A  defect  in  the  fire  wall  system  lies  in  the  neces- 
sity of  closing  the  doors.  Automatic  doors,  self- 
closing,  have  been  developed,  it  is  true,  but  they 
usually  do  not  operate  until  at  least  one  hundred 
and  fifty  degrees  of  heat  have  been  generated,  and 
a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  degrees 
means  lots  of  smoke  which  will  pass  through  these 
doorways  and  invade  the  supposedly  immune  side 
of  the  building. 

In  addition  to  improved  methods  of  construction 
and  improved  types  of  fire-escapes,  such  as  have 
been  indicated,  a  number  of  other  reforms  are  es- 
sential to  make  our  larger  city  buildings  less  ab- 
surdly inadequate  from  the  fire  protection  stand- 
point. All  points  of  egress  should  be  clearly  indi- 
cated. No  exit  doors  should  be  locked  on  any  pre- 
tence whatever  or  at  any  time  when  the  building  is 
occupied  for  its  accustomed  purposes.  Non-smok- 
ing rules  should  be  strictly  enforced  with  a  severe 
fine,  or  dismissal  in  the  case  of  employees,  as  in- 
fringement penalties.  Floors  should  be  kept  scrup- 
ulously clean  and  the  piling  up  of  flimsy  materials, 
such  as  lawn,  straw,  cotton  goods,  feathers,  etc., 


PROTECTION    OF   LIFE       107 

be  absolutely  prohibited.  Material  of  this  nature 
is  ready  food  for  the  flames  and  a  blaze  runs  through 
it  with  incredible  swiftness,  causing  a  very  rapid 
rise  in  temperature  and  thereby  creating  a  condi- 
tion in  a  room  much  like  that  of  the  inside  of  a  hot 
oven. 

That  these  vital  requirements  are  frequently  dis- 
regarded is  but  too  well  known  to  anyone  who  has 
had  close  connection  with  the  fire  department.     I 
have  observed  thousands  of  violations  of  them  in 
the  course  of  my  work,  and  so  has  many  another 
fireman.     After  the  agitation  caused  by  the  factory 
fire  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  on  November  25,   1910,  in 
which  twenty-four  workers  were  unnecessarily  killed, 
and  the  great  Washington  Place  disaster  in  New 
York,   following  quite  closely  thereafter,  the  Wo- 
men's Trade  Union  League  conducted  a  canvass 
of  fire   dangers  which  brought  two   hundred   and 
twenty-three  responses.     Of  this  number  sixty-eight 
workshops  had  doors  opening  inward,  in  sixty-eight 
the  doors  were  kept  locked,  fifty-nine  had  no  fire- 
escapes,  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  had  but  one, 
in  one  hundred  and  nine  the  escapes  were  obstructed 
and  in  ninety-five  the  windows  were  barred.     This 
poll,  of  course,  merely  scratched  the  surface  of  the 
conditions  in  the  city  of  New  York.     When  we 


io8  FIRE    PREVENTION 

add  to  it  the  number  of  buildings  in  which  similar 
conditions  prevail  the  country  over,  we  get  a  glimpse 
of  the  terrible  fire  hazard  under  which  millions  of 
toilers  earn  their  bread. 

These  conditions  ought  to  be  remedied  volunta- 
rily by  owners  of  factories  and  workshops.  For  the 
sake  of  their  peace  of  mind  as  well  as  for  the 
sake  of  their  pocketbooks  they  should  speedily  set 
their  buildings  in  order  in  these  particulars;  but  if, 
for  any  reason,  be  it  blindness,  or  greed,  or  care- 
lessness, or  stubbornness,  or  actual  criminal  intent, 
they  are  unwilling  to  do  so,  the  laws  of  city  and 
State  should  compel  compliance  with  proper  regula- 
tions. And,  what  is  just  as  practically  necessary, 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  enforcement  of 
these  laws,  not  by  half  a  dozen  divided  depart- 
ments or  authorities,  but  by  one  authority,  the  fire 
department.  Of  this  matter,  however,  I  shall  treat 
in  a  later  chapter. 


CHAPTER    VII 

SPRINKLERS  AND  SPRINKLER  SYSTEMS 

IN  the  discussion  of  measures  to  protect  large  build- 
ings and  their  hordes  of  occupants  from  fire,  one 
important  improvement  along  the  line  of  protective 
equipment  or  apparatus  must  not  be  overlooked. 
I  refer  to  sprinklers  of  various  kinds.  These  de- 
vices have  proved  their  worth  over  and  over  again 
in  the  comparatively  short  time  in  which  they  have 
been  in  extended  use,  and  the  modern  office  build- 
ing, loft,  factory,  mill,  warehouse,  department  store, 
school,  institution,  theatre  or  hotel  which  is  with- 
out them,  lacks  one  of  the  most  useful  and  practical 
checks  upon  the  fire  loss  which  has  yet  been  devised. 
Sprinklers,  like  men,  are  of  many  kinds.  They 
vary  in  size,  power,  appearance  and  habits,  but  all 
have  certain  characteristics  in  common.  They  are 
primarily  devices  for  showering  water  on  fires  in 
their  incipiency,  without  specific  human  agency,  al- 
though in  several  types  man  intervenes  to  turn  on 
their  original  water  supply.  Generally  speaking, 
they  may  be  defined  as  small  perforated  heads,  hav- 
ing one  or  more  openings,  set  in  the  ceilings  of  rooms 

109 


no          FIRE    PREVENTION 

at  greater  or  lesser  intervals,  and  connected  by  pip- 
ing with  a  central  system  of  water  supply. 

Perhaps  the  chief  merit  of  these  devices  lies  in 
their  prompt  action.  They  are  often  the  first  wea- 
pon that  is  employed  against  the  flames,  and  are 
thus  given  at  once  the  advantage,  always  immense 
in  fire  extinguishment,  of  being  in  at  the  start. 
Many  kinds  operate  automatically  and  thus  act  as 
watchdogs  by  night  and  by  day,  ever  ready  at  a  rise 
in  temperature  which  indicates  the  presence  of  fire 
to  get  into  quick  action.  Several  kinds  are  equipped 
with  automatic  alarms  so  that  they  not  only  get  to 
work  to  put  out  the  fire,  but  also  give  warning  of 
its  presence. 

Even  in  buildings  already  constructed  sprinkler 
systems  can  be  introduced  at  a  cost  which  is  com- 
paratively low,  and  when  they  are  incorporated  in 
the  plans  for  new  structures,  their  cost  is  indeed 
trifling  when  it  is  compared  with  the  enhanced  secur- 
ity, and  in  nearly  all  places  and  circumstances,  the 
greatly  reduced  insurance  premiums  which  follow. 
I  have  seen  sprinklers  give  satisfaction  so  often  and 
render  such  material  assistance  to  the  fire  depart- 
ment by  holding  in  check  a  blaze  that  threatened  to 
become  dangerous,  or  by  extinguishing  it  altogether 
that  I  recommend  them  without  reservation. 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        in 

It  would  be  idle  to  contend  that  they  are  per- 
fect, or  that  they  had  never  done  damage,  for  every 
now  and  then,  with  certain  types,  action  occurs  when 
there  is  no  fire  at  all,  or  something  goes  wrong  with 
valves  and  water  continues  to  pour  down  when  it  is 
no  longer  required.  But  these  cases  are  compara- 
tively rare  and  are  frequently  the  fault  of  improper 
maintenance  and  inspection  rather  than  that  of  the 
sprinklers  themselves.  They  are,  at  any  rate,  far 
out-weighed  by  the  cases  in  which  great  losses  have 
been  avoided  by  the  efficient  action  of  these  modest 
fire-fighters.  In  fire-fighting  the  most  desirable 
thing  is  prompt  action,  and  I  could  mention  scores 
of  cases  in  which  automatic  sprinklers  have  com- 
pletely extinguished  fires  almost  before  the  occu- 
pants of  the  building  had  realised  that  anything  was 
wrong.  I  have  heard  firemen  berate  sprinklers 
roundly  and  condemn  them  in  unmeasured  terms 
when,  by  some  flaw  or  defect,  they  have  sent  in  a 
false  alarm  and  brought  out  the  department  to  no 
purpose.  In  his  heart,  however,  the  fire-fighter  is 
delighted  to  find,  when  he  reaches  the  scene  of  a 
fire  in  a  large  structure  in  the  dead  of  night,  let  us 
say,  that  the  sprinkler  heads  are  busily  at  work 
and  have  already  accomplished  much  of  his  task. 

The  sprinkler  idea  is  by  no  means  a  new  one. 


ii2          FIRE    PREVENTION 

Indeed,  a  crude  system  was  devised  by  an  English- 
man shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  His  device  consisted  of  a  series  of  pipes 
which  had  perforations  at  intervals  throughout  their 
length.  Of  course  he  could  not  keep  water  in  these 
pipes  during  normal  conditions  and  they  did  not 
operate  automatically,  but  in  spite  of  these  defects 
his  system  was  an  advance  upon  anything  devised  up 
to  that  time  and  his  patents  covered  many  of  the 
points  of  the  modern  sprinkler  system. 

The  modern  sprinkler  head  is  a  metal  cap  or  cone, 
perforated  by  a  hole  or  holes,  sealed  under  normal 
conditions,  so  that  water  in  the  pipe  upon  which  it 
is  mounted  cannot  escape.  When  the  temperature 
in  its  vicinity  rises  to  160  degrees  Fahrenheit,  how- 
ever, no  matter  what  the  cause,  this  seal  is  auto- 
matically broken  and  a  stream  of  water  flows  out 
under  pressure.  It  does  not  appear  as  a  solid 
stream,  however,  for  the  head  is  usually  provided 
with  a  device  known  as  a  "  splash  plate,"  against 
which  the  stream  is  forced  and  thus  broken  and 
deflected  in  a  sort  of  collar  or  ruff  which  drenches 
an  area  of  eighty  to  one  hundred  square  feet  in  the 
form  of  heavy  drops  like  those  of  a  hard  rain. 

Heads  of  this  character  are  so  distributed  on  the 
ceilings  of  each  story  of  a  building  that  the  water 


SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS        113 

from  them  will  cover  the  entire  floor  without  waste 
or  overlapping  Water  supply  for  the  systems  is 
preferably  drawn  from  two  sources  so  as  to  insure 
certain  action:  the  city  supply,  brought  in  from  street 
mains,  and  a  tank  of  either  the  pressure  or  gravity 
type  on  the  roof  of  the  building  itself.  By  this  sim- 
ple device  water  is  thrown  only  where  it  is  most 
needed,  thus  obviating  the  flooding  of  an  entire 
building,  with  consequent  heavy  losses  to  the  struc- 
ture itself  or  to  the  stock  through  water  damage. 
It  is  just  as  efficient  in  heavy  smoke  or  under  intense 
heat  as  at  other  times  and  can  operate  at  times 
and  places  which  defeat  the  efforts  of  firemen  with 
hose  lines.  Another  great  advantage  of  the  sprin-  4~ 
kler  system  is  that  it  can  be  used  without  destroying 
the  beauty  of  building  interiors,  and  it  thus  com- 
mends itself  especially  to  schools,  churches,  theatres 
and  hotels.  Loft  buildings,  so  many  of  which  are 
now  used  wholly  or  in  part  as  sweatshops,  should  in- 
variably have  sprinklers.  It  is  a  disgrace  that  40 
per  cent,  of  the  structures  of  this  class  in  New  York 
City  should  not  be  provided  with  them. 

Results  speak  for  themselves.  I  have  personally 
seen  so  many  examples  of  successful  sprinklers  in  op- 
eration that  to  enumerate  them  would  be  tedious, 
and  the  story  is  the  same  everywhere.  "  During  the 


ii4          FIRE    PREVENTION 

first  quarter  of  1911,  of  1,086  fires  in  sprinklered 
risks,  646  were  practically  or  entirely  extinguished 
by  automatic  sprinklers,  403  were  held  in  check  by 
the  same  means,  and  in  but  37  cases  were  their 
action  found  unsatisfactory."  * 

A  typical  case  of  sprinkler  action  at  a  fire  of  one 
of  the  most  dangerous  kinds,  cotton  burning  in  a 
warehouse,  is  thus  described: 

"  Description  of  Building.  Brick,  70  feet  by  240 
feet;  one  story  (average  22  feet)  in  height;  roof 
open  joisted  construction,  with  wooden  uprights;  no 
openings  in  walls  except  three  doorways  at  front 
end,  provided  with  2-inch  wooden,  sliding  doors 
with  tin  nailed  to  outside  only;  floor  of  boards  laid 
on  ground  or  on  sleepers.  Full  capacity,  2,000 
bales;  actual  contents  1,688  bales  of  American  cot- 
ton piled  in  lots  from  i  to  200  bales  or  more,  laid 
flat  and  tiered  6  to  10  bales  high;  practically  none 
skidded. 

"  Protection.  Standard  dry  pipe  system  of  auto- 
matic sprinklers,  embracing  288  heads,  installed 
1905,  supplied  by  two  steam  pumps,  each  of  1,000 
gallons  capacity;  one  automatic,  draughting  from 
city  main  and  supplying  85  pounds  pressure  in  sprin- 

*"  Individual  Fire  Fighting"  Rochester  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce. 


SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS       115 

kler  and  hydrant  system,  the  other  non-automatic 
and  draughting  salt  water  from  New  York  Bay; 
also  a  ioo,ooogallon  gravity  tank  giving  60  pounds 
pressure  at  ground  level.  System  maintained  dry 
pipe  all  the  year  round  under  air  pressure  of  40 
pounds,  obtained  from  an  automatic,  electrically 
driven  air  pump.  Under  practically  constant  test, 
all  valves  being  electrically  connected  with  an  alarm 
system,  so  that  interruption  of,  or  interference  with, 
any  part  of  the  equipment  gives  immediate  alarm; 
outside  hydrants,  hose,  patrol,  etc. 

"Fire  occurred  at  12.10  P.  M.  in  Compartment 
No.  19.  It  was  discovered  by  the  sounding  of  the 
automatic  alarm  in  the  pump  house,  showing  that 
sprinklers  had  opened  and  that  dry  valve  controlling 
these  had  operated.  Private  fire  alarm  was  sounded 
by  means  of  whistle  and  public  alarm  was  turned 
in  at  the  box.  As  it  was  the  noon  hour  no  one  was 
in  the  vicinity  of  store;  however,  on  reaching  there 
the  bell  on  the  building  was  heard  ringing. 

"  The  hose  cart  adjoining  Store  No.  14  was  run 
out  and  one  length  of  hose  stretched  from  nearest 
yard  hydrant.  Water  was  played  from  this  source 
on  the  fire  for  about  thirty  seconds  before  the  fire 
department  arrived.  On  the  arrival  of  the  fire  de- 
partment they  found  considerable  smoke  in  building 


n6          FIRE    PREVENTION 

and  a  little  flame.  They  at  once  entered  the  store, 
ran  out  one  length  of  hose  from  the  same  yard 
hydrant  and  removed  the  four  skylights  in  roof  to 
let  out  smoke.  The  water  from  the  sprinklers  was 
turned  off  from  the  outside  by  the  post  indicator 
gate  valve.  The  fire  was  found  practically  out,  but 
one  hose  stream  was  kept  in  use  for  about  two  min- 
utes by  the  fire  department  to  put  out  smouldering 
patches  on  bales  as  they  were  pulled  down  and  re- 
moved from  building. 

"  Four  heads  operated  directly  over  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  lot  of  cotton  in  which  fire  occurred 
and  were  in  service  about  ten  minutes.  The  burn- 
ing lot  covered  about  sixty-four  square  feet  near 
centre  of  store  and  contained  fifteen  bales  piled  five 
and  six  high  and  reaching  to  within  about  six  feet 
of  the  sprinkler  pipes,  with  a  one-foot  space  on 
one  side,  three  feet  on  another,  eight  feet  on  an- 
other and  an  eight-  to  ten-foot  aisle  between  it  and 
the  lot  piled  opposite.  Fire  was  confined  to  the 
lot  of  bales  in  which  it  started.  The  floor  under 
cotton  was  burned  and  scorched  a  little,  but  the  ac- 
tion of  the  sprinklers  was  so  efficient  that  the  fire  did 
not  burn  into  the  wood  to  any  depth.  Indications 
are  that  the  fire  started  near  or  at  the  floor  and  in 
the  interior  of  the  pile.  There  was  very  little,  if 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        117 

any,  burrowing  in  any  bale,  the  fire  doing  most 
damage  on  the  outside.  The  bales  were  burned  and 
scorched  on  the  exposed  sides  only,  especially  on 
the  side  nearest  the  floors.  The  burlap  coverings 
were  in  most  cases  badly  damaged.  One  sprinkler 
head  was  knocked  off  by  firemen  in  removing  sky- 
light." * 

This,  as  will  be  noted,  was  a  case  in  which  the 
so-called  "  dry  pipe  "  system  of  sprinklers  was  in 
use.  This  is  a  form  in  which  water  is  in  the  pipes 
only  when  they  are  in  operation  during  a  fire.  It 
is  by  no  means  as  good  a  system  as  the  "  wet  pipe," 
in  which  water  is  always  present  at  the  sprinkler 
heads. 

Action  as  efficient  as  this  is  not  extraordinary. 
The  same  results  have  been  obtained  time  with- 
out number  in  all  classes  of  buildings,  under  all 
kinds  of  conditions. 

If  the  excellent  results  in  the  saving  of  property  ^/ 
and  life  by  means  of  sprinklers  were  not  enough 
to  cause  their  immediate  and  universal  installation, 
the  advantages  in  reduced  fire  insurance  which  accrue 
from  their  use  should  make  a  strong  appeal  to  the 
practical  business  man  or  building  owner.  Insur- 
ance companies  will  make  a  substantial  reduction 

*  Quarterly,   National   Fire   Protection   Association.     Vol.   5. 
No.  2 


n8          FIRE    PREVENTION 

amounting  to  from  35  to  50  per  cent,  in  rates  ac- 
cording to  the  various  alarm  systems  used  in  con- 
junction with  an  approved  wet  pipe  sprinkler  sys- 
tem. By  reason  of  these  reductions  the  sprinkler 
system  will  pay  for  itself  in  a  very  few  years.  A 
typical  example  of  how  this  will  work  out  in  prac- 
.tice  follows.  The  illustration  is  taken  from  a 
building  of  about  35,000  square  feet  of  floor  area: 

Value  of  building $  53,000.00 

Value  of  contents 150,000.00 

5-year  rate  on  building  per  $100  before  sprinkling, 

$.36  per  annum,  which  makes  the  insurance 190.80 

Annual  rate  on  contents,  $1.15,  which  makes  the  cost 

of  insurance  of  contents  before  sprinkling 1,725.00 

Total  cost  of  insurance  per  annum $    1,915.80 

"  The  cost  of  the  installation  of  sprinklers  would 
be  approximately  $1,750,  and  the  reduction  in  in- 
surance premiums  would  be  40  per  cent.  Forty 
per  cent,  of  .$1,915.80  is  $766.32.  That  is,  an 
investment  of  $1,750  would  make  a  saving  of 
$766.32  in  insurance  rates.  If  we  charge  15  per 
cent,  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  investment,  it 
still  leaves  a  net  profit  of  $503.82,  by  which  the 
sprinkler  installation  would  pay  for  itself  in  three 
and  a  half  years. 

"  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  illustration  given 
above  the  contents  value  is  high  compared  with 
the  cost  of  the  building.  In  cases  of  buildings 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        119 

used  largely  for  office  purposes  where  the  contents 
value  is  low,  the  installation  of  sprinklers  will  not, 
of  course,  prove  as  good  an  investment.  But  in 
any  case  the  automatic  sprinklers  will  yield  a  rea- 
sonable return  through  the  reduction  in  insurance 
rates,  besides  giving  protection  against  loss  by 
fire."  * 

The  installation  of  sprinklers  is  a  protection  not 
only  to  the  individual  building,  but  to  all  the  sur- 
rounding property  as  well,  for  each  building  which 
contains  them  may  be  regarded  as  one  which  is  no 
longer  a  special  danger  point  of  contagion,  likely 
to  cause  a  serious  "  exposure  "  fire,  of  which  there 
are  so  many  thousands  each  year,  in  one  or  more  of 
its  neighbours. 

Sprinklers,  like  all  other  forms  of  offensive  and 
defensive  weapons  against  the  fire  foe,  must  be 
properly  installed  and  properly  maintained  in  order 
to  accomplish  their  object.  There  must  be  enough 
of  them;  they  must  have  an  adequate  water  supply 
to  meet  any  emergency,  and  they  must  be  constantly 
inspected  and  tested  so  that  any  defect  in  them  may 
be  at  once  detected.  Many  of  the  best  types  are 
now  provided  with  automatic  trouble  detectors  of 
one  sort  or  another,  but  it  is  always  safer  to  supple- 
*  Report  of  Committee  of  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce. 


120          FIRE    PREVENTION 

ment  this  mechanical  safeguard  with  careful  human 
supervision. 

In  the  plans  for  new  buildings  it  is  no  difficult 
feat  for  the  designer  to  provide  for  the  sprinkler 
equipment.  But,  though  it  is  to  be  recommended 
in  every  case  for  new  structures,  the  need  for  this 
safeguard  is  quite  as  vital  in  buildings  already 
standing.  Many  of  these  require  careful  prepara- 
tion and  important,  though  often  slight,  changes, 
before  the  pipes  and  heads  of  a  sprinkler  system 
should  be  installed.  Floorings  should  be  made 
tight,  unnecessary  sheathing  removed  from  ceilings, 
hollow  sidings  and  the  useless  tops  of  high  shelving 
and  partitions  cleared  away.  Paper  or  light  in- 
flammable sheathing  of  any  kind  is  unnecessary  on 
ceilings  and  should  be  removed  before  the  sprin- 
klers are  put  in.  Lath  and  plaster,  carefully 
matched  boards,  or  better  still,  metal,  form  excel- 
lent substitutes  and  will  prevent  the  leakage  of  dirt 
through  floors  if  properly  put  up.  In  all  cases 
sheathing  should  be  kept  in  good  repair  or  it  will 
become  a  danger  point. 

For  their  most  effective  action  sprinklers  should 
have  at  least  eight  inches  of  entirely  clear  space 
under  roof  or  floor  beams  in  which  to  work,  for  with 
a  less  space  than  this  the  fan  of  water  does  not  have 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        121 

a  full  opportunity  to  spread  and  do  its  work. 
Droughts,  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  interfere 
with  the  best  action  of  sprinklers  and  effective  stops 
of  one  kind  or  another  are  a  requisite.  Complete 
protection  is  not  to  be  expected  in  cases  where 
sprinklers  are  put  at  a  disadvantage  by  reason  of 
the  storage  of  large  quantities  of  benzine,  gasolene, 
naphtha  or  other  highly  inflammable  fluid  or  by  the 
presence  of  stock  that  is  especially  susceptible  to 
water  damage.  Nor  can  they  give  complete  pro- 
tection in  cases  where  there  is  communication  be- 
tween sprinklered  and  unsprinklered  portions  of  a 
building.  In  such  cases  effective  measures  to  shut 
off  the  unsprinklered  portions  from  the  rest  are 
essential. 

There  is  little  to  be  gained  by  the  installation  of 
sprinklers  in  a  few  chosen  portions  of  a  building 
or  plant  only.  I  have  frequently  seen  fires  in  which 
this  practice  proved  its  inadequacy.  Some  of  the 
places  which  seem  to  require  sprinklers  least  of  all 
are  the  very  ones  in  which  they  should  be  placed. 
They  should  be  placed  throughout  the  given  prem- 
ises, in  lofts  and  basements,  inside  elevator  walls,  in 
belt,  pulley  or  gear  boxes,  under  stairways,  in  small 
rooms,  such  as  heating  and  drying  boxes,  and  in 
cupboards  and  closets  which  have  enclosed  tops. 


122          FIRE    PREVENTION 

They  should  under  no  circumstances  be  left  out  of 
rooms  simply  because  these  are  damp  or  of  fireproof 
construction,  and  are  needed  not  merely  in  locations 
in  which  a  fire  is  likely  to  start,  but  in  any  to  which 
it  might  spread  or  extend.  It  is  false  economy  to 
use  too  few  heads,  just  as  it  is  false  economy  to 
ignore  the  advantages  of  the  system  as  a  whole. 

Sprinklers  should  always  be  placed  in  an  upright 
position;  that  is  to  say,  with  the  heads  turned  up- 
ward toward  the  ceiling  and  opening  from  the  up- 
per sides  of  the  pipe  lines.  There  are  occasional 
exceptional  conditions  under  which  this  rule  may  be 
modified,  but  they  are  so  rare  that  they  form  no 
problem  for  the  vast  majority  of  builders  or  build- 
ing owners.  The  axiom  that  too  many  sprinklers 
are  far  better  than  too  few,  holds  goods  in  locations 
near  partitions.  It  is  sometimes  the  practice  to  rely 
on  cutting  holes  through  partitions  so  that  the  water 
from  heads  on  but  one  side  may  reach  both,  but  this 
practice  is  to  be  condemned  and  in  places  of  this  sort 
heads  should  be  placed  on  both  sides. 

The  proper  spacing  and  proximity  of  sprinkler 
heads  has  been  determined  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  their  instructions  may  be 
followed  with  profit.  For  mill  construction,  de- 
fined as  "  smooth,  solid  plank  and  timber  construe- 


SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS        123 

tion,  6  to  12  foot  bays,"  a  line  of  sprinklers  should 
be  placed  in  the  centre  of  each  bay,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  heads  on  each  line  not  to  be  in  excess  of 
8  feet  in  12  foot  bays,  9  feet  in  1 1  foot  bays,  10  feet 
in  10  foot  bays,  n  feet  in  9  foot  bays,  and  12  feet 
in  6  to  8  foot  bays.  Under  joisted  ceilings  the  dis- 
tance between  the  heads  should  not  exceed  8  feet 
at  right  angles  with  the  poist  and  10  feet  parallel 
with  it.  Under  smooth  sheathed  or  plastered  ceil- 
ings, the  same  distances  apply  as  under  mill  con- 
struction save  that  10  feet  is  the  maximum  in  bays 
from  6  to  10  feet  in  width.  Bays  more  than  12 
feet  and  less  than  23  feet  wide  should  contain  two 
lines  of  heads  and  in  bays  wider  than  the  larger 
measurement  here  given,  the  lines  should  not  be 
more  than  10  feet  apart.  Under  roofs  which  slope 
more  steeply  than  i  foot  in  3,  a  line  of  heads  should 
be  placed  in  the  peak  of  the  roof  and  others  to  con- 
form with  the  spacing  already  described,  measuring 
always  on  a  line  parallel  with  the  roof. 

Under  most  kinds  of  construction,  even  in  bays, 
sprinklers  should  be  placed  according  to  the  "  stag- 
gered "  method,  that  is  so  that  the  heads  are  oppo- 
site a  point  half  way  between  those  on  the  adjacent 
lines  on  either  side.  It  would  be  well  to  follow  the 
Underwriters'  regulations  in  the  matter  of  the  num- 


124 


FIRE    PREVENTION 


ber  of  heads  allowed  to  various  sizes  of  pipe  also. 
This  number  should  not  be  in  excess  of  the  follow- 
ing: 

Maximum  No.  of 

Size  of  pipe                                                         Sprinklers  allowed 
34-inch    i  sprinkler 


a 

2 
2% 


2  sprinklers 
3 


20 
36 


.140 
.200 


Where  practicable  it  is  desirable  to  arrange  the 
piping  so  that  the  number  of  sprinklers  on  a  branch 
line  will  not  exceed  eight 

So-called  "  centre  central  "  or  "  side  central  "  lo- 
cation of  the  feed  or  riser  pipes  for  sprinklers  is 
greatly  to  be  preferred  to  any  form  of  end  feed. 
The  first  type,  centre  central,  is  usually  the  best, 
where  there  is  any  considerable  number  of  heads  on 
a  given  line.  The  accompanying  diagrams  show 
these  various  forms  of  feed  location.  In  every 
building  and  in  each  section  of  a  building  separated 
by  fire  walls  there  should  be  one  or  more  separate 
risers;  two  is  the  most  desirable  number  for  practi- 
cal purposes.  To  go  into  the  matter  of  valves  and 
other  details  of  installation  would  take  me  too  far 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        125 

into  technicalities,  but  gate  and  check  valves  of  ap- 
proved type  and  manufacture  form  highly  impor- 
tant parts  of  every  sprinkler  equipment.  Gate 
valves  in  the  supply  pipes  should  be  secured  by  some 
safe  method  of  fastening,  either  by  padlocks  or 
riveted  leather  straps  to  insure  against  tampering 
or  interference,  although  in  some  of  the  best  auto- 
matic systems,  immediate  notification  automatically 
of  broken  valve  seals  modifies  the  necessity  of  this. 
The  pipes  which  supply  the  heads  should  be  securely 
fastened  and  supported  by  wrought  or  cast  iron 
hangers. 

In  every  case  sprinkler  pipes  and  fittings  should 
be  so  installed  as  to  insure  perfect  drainage,  so  that 
they  may  be  thoroughly  drained  out  whenever  it  is 
desired.  The  dry  pipe  system  is  only  to  be  recom- 
mended in  buildings  in  which  the  wet  pipe  system 
cannot  be  installed  for  practical  reasons,  chief 
among  which  is  the  lack  of  heating.  Even  when 
there  are  no  heating  facilities  the  dry  pipe  system 
should  be  avoided  if  the  structure  can  be  protected 
from  frost,  but  it  is  better  to  have  this  less  efficient 
type  than  to  follow  the  familiar  custom  of  shutting 
off  water  entirely  during  cold  weather. 

In  the  dry  pipe  system  air  pressure  must  be  main- 
tained throughout  the  year.  A  steam  or  electric 


126          FIRE    PREVENTION 

pump  is  necessary  which  is  capable  of  increasing  air 
pressure  at  a  minimum  rate  of  one  pound  every  two 
minutes,  and  the  rate  should  be  higher  if  possible. 
The  air  which  is  thus  pumped  into  the  pipes  should 
be  dry,  so  that  no  moisture  will  be  introduced  into 
the  system.  For  water  supply  there  should  be  not 
less  than  two  quite  independent  sources.  One  must 
be  automatic  and  the  other  capable  of  supplying 
water  under  strong  pressure.  These  sources  of  sup- 
ply should  be  connected  with  the  risers  for  the 
sprinklers  by  a  pipe  as  large  as,  or  larger  than  the 
riser  itself.  A  supply  of  water  from  the  public 
water  works  or  a  private  reservoir  should  reach  the 
pipes  at  a  pressure  capable  of  furnishing  a  pressure 
of  not  less  than  twenty-five  pounds  at  the  highest 
sprinklers  in  the  structure,  under  normal  conditions, 
and  not  less  than  ten  pounds  at  these  highest  sprin- 
klers even  while  water  is  pouring  from  the  maximum 
number  of  other  sprinklers  which  might  be  opened 
during  the  course  of  a  fire. 

Where  the  pump  is  arranged  to  take  water  from  a 
cistern,  care  is  essential  to  maintain  a  constant  ade- 
quate depth  of  water  in  this  receptacle.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  supply  is  drawn  from  the  public 
mains,  the  reliability  of  the  supply  should  be  care- 
fully tested. 


SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS        127 

Seventy-five  pounds  of  steam  pressure  should  be 
the  rule  at  the  main  pump. 

In  many  buildings  one  of  the  sources  of  water 
supply  for  the  direct  use  of  the  sprinklers  is  a  grav- 
ity tank.  If  this  form  of  tank  is  used  it  should  have 
a  minimum  capacity  of  5,000  gallons,  but  a  much 
greater  capacity  is  to  be  preferred.  The  higher 
above  the  highest  line  of  sprinklers  such  a  tank  is 
placed  the  more  effective  will  be  its  operation  and 
the  less  likelihood  there  will  be  of  unsatisfactory 
service.  It  goes  almost  without  saying  that  this 
tank  should  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than 
to  supply  the  sprinklers,  save  in  rare  cases  where 
the  tank  is  so  large  that  its  excess  capacity  may  be 
safely  used  to  feed  standpipes  or  other  fire-fighting 
devices.  Wooden  tanks  are  more  commonly  found 
than  steel  or  iron  ones,  but  I  much  prefer  the  latter 
and  would  like  to  see  them  installed  in  all  cases 
where  it  is  possible.  Whichever  form  is  employed, 
its  proper  construction,  careful  inspection  and  ade- 
quate original  strength  are  matters  of  importance. 

Pressure  tanks  are  also  found  in  many  buildings 
as  sources  of  sprinkler  supply.  They  are,  of  course, 
of  metal  and  for  their  construction  the  following 
formula  can  safely  be  followed: 

"  To  be  of  fire  box  or  flange  steel  of  even  quality, 


128  FIRE    PREVENTION 

having  a  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  55,000, 
nor  more  than  60,000  pounds.  Thickness  of  plates 
to  be  determined  as  follows: 

P  x  r  x  6 

~^75~x  S 

T=Thickness  of  plate  in  inches. 
P=Working  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
r=Internal  radius  of  shell. 

S=Tensile  strength  of  plates  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
6=Factor  of  safety. 
•75= Value  of  riveted  joints.* 

The  capacity  of  such  a  tank  should  be  at  least 
5,000  gallons.  It  should  be  placed  not  lower  than 
the  highest  story  of  the  building  and  used  solely  for 
the  supply  of  sprinklers  and  hand  hose.  Under  test 
the  tank  should  not  show  a  loss  of  pressure  greater 
than  one-half  a  pound  in  twenty-four  hours.  If  it 
is1  located  at  a  level  with  the  highest  sprinklers 
which  it  is  to  supply  an  air  pressure  of  at  least 
seventy-five  pounds  should  be  constantly  maintained, 
and  this  minimum  should  be  considerably  increased 
if  the  location  is  below  the  highest  sprinklers.  In 
addition  to  a  rotary  pump  and  electric  fire  pump,  I 
believe  that  some  provision  should  be  made  whereby 
the  sprinkler  system  of  a  building  can  be  directly 
connected  with  the  hose  or  engines  of  the  public  fire 
department.  In  New  York,  such  a  connection  has 
frequently  been  made  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
*  Underwriters'  Pamphlet. 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        129 

Additional  protection  can  be  afforded  buildings 
in  many  cases  by  the  installation  of  window  sprin- 
klers, which  are  intended  to  lessen  the  risk  from  ex- 
posure fires.  When  these  protective  agents  are 
used,  one  sprinkler  should  be  placed  in  the  centre 
of  each  window  five  feet  or  less  in  width,  and  two 
or  more  heads,  spaced  to  cover  the  whole  surface 
with  their  discharge,  in  windows  of  larger  size. 
When  in  action  these  window  sprinklers,  if  properly 
located,  will  send  a  stream  of  water  spreading  over 
the  upper  portion  of  the  pane,  and  the  water,  run- 
ning down,  will  quickly  wet  most  of  the  glass,  thus 
keeping  it  cool  and  doing  much  to  prevent  its  break- 
age by  the  heat  of  a  neighbouring  blaze.  As  many 
of  our  worst  fires  have  been  of  a  contagious  nature, 
spreading  from  building  to  building  by  the  sheer 
power  of  their  heat,  and  usually  finding  the  windows 
vulnerable  points  of  entry,  the  value  of  this  type  of 
sprinkler  is  not  easily  overestimated. 

Only  in  cases  where  the  gravity  or  pressure  tank 
used  to  supply  the  regular  automatic  sprinklers  of 
which  I  have  been  speaking,  is  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  leave  an  ample  margin  of  safety,  should  it  also 
be  the  source  of  supply  for  these  window  sprinklers. 
Ordinarily  the  supply  for  them  is  properly  drawn 
from  the  public  water  works  or  from  connections 


130          FIRE    PREVENTION 

with  the  fire  department  apparatus,  or  a  special  set 
of  pumps.  Though  highly  useful  when  certain  con- 
ditions arise,  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  impair  the 
efficiency  of  the  interior  sprinklers,  more  frequently 
called  upon.  This  also  applies  to  side  wall,  ridge 
pole  and  cornice  sprinklers  which  are  sometimes  in- 
stalled to  protect  frame  buildings,  mansard  roofs 
and  superstructure  of  various  kinds.  Two  general 
rules  may  be  laid  down  for  all  kinds  of  sprinklers: 
the  pipes  which  feed  them  should  never  be  tampered 
with  or  used  as  clothes  hangers,  and  a  supply  of  ex- 
tra heads  should  be  kept  on  hand  to  take  the  place 
of  any  which  may  be  burned  out  in  fire  or  other- 
wise incapacitated. 

I  have  been  speaking  thus  far  of  the  extinguishing 
feature  of  sprinkler  systems.  But  this  is  by  no 
means  their  only  function.  They  act  as  transmit- 
ters of  alarm  as  well  and  frequently  they  are  the 
^/  first  source  of  alarm.  This  is  one  of  their  strong 
points  and  is  based  on  their  characteristic  of  being 
always  on  the  watch,  so  to  speak.  With  a  good 
system  of  watchmen,  making  regular  rounds  and  re- 
cording them  on  the  watchman's  clock  or  other 
checking  device,  many  buildings  are  reasonably 
protected,  even  during  the  night  hours.  But  human 
nature  is  fallible  and,  moreover,  in  any  large 


co -5 


SPRINKLER    SYSTEMS        131 

structure,  the  time  consumed  in  making  rounds 
necessarily  leaves  portions  of  the  building  unguarded 
during  considerable  intervals.  It  is  at  just  such 
times  that  the  modest  little  sprinkler,  almost  out  of 
sight  on  the  ceiling,  proves  most  valuable  in  its 
capacity  as  an  alarm  giver. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  fire  breaks  out  from 
faulty  insulation  in  the  ribbon  department  of  some 
big  importing  house.  The  time  is  four  A.  M.  The 
watchman  has  been  on  this  floor,  the  fourth,  twenty 
minutes  before,  but  is  now  two  stories  below  in  an- 
other department.  Long  before  he  knows  of  the 
existence  of  a  fire,  the  heat  in  a  case  of  burning 
ribbons  has  melted  one  or  two  sprinkler  heads,  and 
they  have  begun  not  only  to  shower  water  on  the 
burning  area,  but  have  also  sent  in  an  alarm  of  fire 
to  headquarters,  or  to  the  nearest  company  of  the 
fire  department,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  set  in  opera- 
tion alarm  gongs  in  the  building  which  may  be  the 
first  intimation  the  watchman  has  that  anything  is 
wrong.  Numerous  cases  of  this  kind  are  within  my 
own  experience. 

The  value  of  this  alarm  feature  of  sprinklers  is 
manifest  and  no  system  is  complete  unless  it  con- 
tains an  alarm  valve,  the  construction  of  which 
causes  the  flow  of  water  through  it  to  operate  an 


132  FIRE    PREVENTION 

electric  gong,  a  mechanical  gong,  or  both,  as  the 
circumstances  make  advisable.  The  use  of  both 
forms  of  gong  affords  the  best  protection.  Two 
separate  circuits  should  connect  the  alarm  system 
with  the  central  station  which  receives  notice  of 
trouble.  One  of  these  will  take  care  of  all  alarms 
due  to  the  flow  of  water,  while  the  other  is  intended 
to  carry  messages  to  show  that  some  part  of  the 
system  is  out  of  order.  No  alarm  system  of  this 
kind  is  complete  unless  the  central  office  can  deter- 
mine from  the  nature  of  the  signal  it  receives,  what 
feature  of  the  system  is  out  of  order.  There 
should  also  be  a  distinct  signal  to  show  that  a  valve 
has  returned  to  its  normal  position,  and  thus  indi- 
cate that  all  is  again  in  working  order.  Gongs 
which  are  used  within  the  building  should  be  of  the 
regular  vibrating  pattern  and  should  be  at  least  six 
inches,  or,  preferably,  eight  inches  in  diameter. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

OTHER  ALARM  DEVICES  IN  BUILDINGS 

THERE  are  a  number  of  devices  in  use  for  'detecting 
fire  automatically  in  addition  to  the  alarm  systems 
connected  with  sprinklers.  Of  these,  thermostats 
of  various  types  are  the  most  common.  These,  if 
well  made  and  well  placed,  are  of  great  value  and 
should  be  installed  in  all  large  buildings  which  have 
no  sprinkler  alarm  system  or  even  in  conjunction 
with  such  a  system.  The  rules  for  placing  thermo- 
stats are  practically  identical  with  those  for  spacing 
sprinkler  heads  given  in  the  previous  chapter.  The 
object  is  to  have  each  thermostat  cover  a  definite 
and  restricted  area  and  respond  to  any  undue  rise 
in  temperature  only  in  this  area. 

Nearly  all  these  devices  are  alike  in  that  they 
send  in  an  alarm  by  making  an  electrical  connection 
when  the  temperature  in  the  area  which  they  guard 
rises  above  the  point  of  safety,  usually  set  at  from 
150  to  155  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  means  of 

forming  the  connection  is  most  frequently  a  fusible 

133 


134          FIRE    PREVENTION 

link  of  metal  which  melts  under  the  unusual  heat. 
Thermostats  of  the  best  sort  do  not  give  alarm 
simply  because  the  temperature  reaches  a  given 
point,  but  because  it  reaches  that  point  with  undue 
speed.  By  this  provision  alarms  are  avoided  when 
a  room  becomes  gradually  too  hot  by  purely  natural 
means,  such  as  steam  heat  too  long  left  on  or  other 
heating  defects.  I  do  not  imply  that  rooms  can  be 
made  to  reach  a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  degrees  by  such  natural  means,  but  thermostats 
are  delicate  mechanisms  and  many  of  them  will  give 
alarm  at  a  point  considerably  below  this.  When  the 
arrangement  is  such  that  rapid  rise,  rather  than  mere 
temperature,  causes  the  sending  of  an  alarm,  all 
trouble  from  this  source  is  at  once  avoided.  Many 
a  time  in  the  past  the  fire  department  has  been  need- 
lessly called  out  by  a  false  thermostat  alarm,  but 
with  the  improvement  in  the  construction  of  these 
instruments  in  the  last  few  years,  trouble  of  this  sort 
is  on  the  decline. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  the  installation  of  ther- 
mostats that  the  proper  method  of  wiring,  both  in 
and  out  of  the  building,  is  provided.  Circuits 
should  not  carry  more  than  fifteen  building  equip- 
ments each,  and  must  transmit  the  signals  of  alarm 
to  a  central  station,  sending  in  the  box  number  of 


ALARM   DEVICES  135 

the  building,  and  showing  also  the  floor  number  of 
the  particular  instrument  in  operation  on  an  annun- 
ciator placed  in  a  conspicuous  and  protected  location 
within  the  building  itself.  Thermostats  should  be 
attached  to  ceilings  by  some  fastening  in  addition  to 
the  electric  wires,  and,  like  sprinklers,  should  be  lo- 
cated generally  throughout  a  building,  in  apparently 
safe  as  well  as  apparently  dangerous  locations. 

Not  more  than  twenty-five  thermostats  should  be 
on  one  circuit  within  the  building.  Circuits  should 
be  metallic  and  when  the  open  circuit  system  is  em- 
ployed, it  should  be  so  arranged  that  one  break  will 
not  so  disarrange  it  as  to  prevent  the  giving  of  an 
alarm.  All  circuits  should  be  provided  with  auto- 
matic means  of  giving  notice  when  they  are  put  out 
of  order,  but  careful  inspection  is  not  to  be  neglected 
simply  because  such  means  are  present.  If  all  the 
wires  of  a  system  are  not  under  constant  battery 
test,  there  should  be  a  testing  apparatus  in  the  en- 
gine room  or  in  some  part  of  the  building  in  which 
an  employee  is  constantly  on  duty.  An  eight-inch 
gong  should  give  notice  in  the  engine  room  or  other 
convenient  place  of  any  short  circuit  on  the  system. 
This,  like  all  the  alarms  of  the  journal  alarm  sys- 
tem with  which  the  thermostats  are  connected,  must 
not  be  on  the  regular  journal  alarm  circuit,  but  upon 


136          FIRE    PREVENTION 

a  separate  relay.  There  should  be  a  system  by 
which,  when  an  alarm  comes  in,  the  circuit  number 
can  be  transmitted  to  each  floor.  On  all  the  floors 
eight-inch  gongs,  which  shall  sound  alarms  of  this 
character  should  be  located  near  the  center. 

One  recent  modification  of  the  thermostat  idea 
seems  to  solve  the  problem  of  automatic  alarms  in 
a  highly  satisfactory  manner.  This  device,  like  so 
many  other  good  things,  is  very  simple.  It  consists 
merely  in  copper  tubing  of  small  size,  which  is  fas- 
tened upon  the  ceiling  of  the  building  or  the  par- 
ticular story  of  the  building  to  be  protected.  The 
tube  is  inconspicuous  and  practically  unnoticeable. 
It  terminates  at  the  end  of  its  tour  of  the  room 
in  a  box  containing  a  diaphragm.  The  diaphragm, 
when  forced  out  of  position,  forms  an  electric  con- 
nection and  thus  sends  in  an  alarm. 

The  theory  of  this  simple  device  is  this:  The 
tube,  being  hollow,  is  filled  with  air,  just  as  the 
room  in  which  it  is  placed  is  filled  with  air.  When 
the  air  in  the  room  becomes  overheated,  that  in  the 
tube  undergoes  the  same  change.  As  it  rises  in 
temperature  this  air  expands  and,  as  the  tube  con- 
fines it  laterally,  it  of  course  sets  up  a  pressure  on 
the  diaphragm  and  thus  sends  in  an  alarm.  What 
might  be  termed  "  false  alarm  vents  "  are  provided 


ALARM   DEVICES  137 

in  the  diaphragms  so  that  a  slight  rise  in  tempera- 
ture, such  as  would  be  brought  about  by  natural 
causes,  is  taken  care  of  and  the  air  allowed  to  es- 
cape without  sending  in  an  alarm.  When  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  goes  up  by  leaps  and  bounds, 
however,  as  it  invariably  does  in  the  case  of  fire, 
the  pressure  of  air  at  the  diaphragm  is  far  greater 
than  these  outlets  can  neutralise,  and  immediately 
the  connection  is  effected  and  an  alarm  turned  in. 

I  have  seen  this  excellent  device  in  action  under 
test  and  it  has  fulfilled  every  requirement  even  un- 
der peculiarly  trying  conditions.  I  believe  it  marks 
a  long  step  in  advance  in  the  matter  of  automatic 
alarms.  This  instrument  is  so  sensitive  that  it  ex- 
pands to  sudden  rises  of  temperature  of  from  five 
to  six  degrees. 

Another  useful  form  of  alarm  for  buildings  is 
known  as  the  "  manual  "  type.  This  is,  as  its  name 
implies,  an  alarm  operated  by  hand.  Usually  it 
takes  the  form  of  a  small  box  with  varying  methods 
of  operation,  by  means  of  which  any  person  who 
perceives  a  fire  may  give  an  alarm  without  waste  of 
time.  Naturally  a  prime  requirement  is  accessi- 
bility, and  manual  alarm  boxes,  for  this  reason, 
should  be  so  placed  that  in  no  case  need  any  great 
distance  be  traversed  in  order  to  reach  one  of  them. 


138          FIRE    PREVENTION 

In  buildings  of  less  than  seventy-five  hundred  square 
feet  of  ground  area,  which  are  more  than  one  story 
in  height,  there  should  be  a  box  on  the  first  and  alter- 
nate upper  floors,  that  is  to  say  the  third,  fifth, 
seventh  and  so  forth.  If  the  building  is  of  greater 
area  than  this,  however,  not  less  than  one  box  for 
each  story  should  be  installed. 

The  best  location  for  boxes  is  near  the  main  exits 
of  buildings  or  floors,  and,  of  course,  in  cases  where 
buildings  are  subdivided  into  sections,  each  section 
should  be  supplied  just  as  completely  as  if  it  were  a 
separate  structure.  Boxes  should  be  arranged  to 
give  a  distinctive  signal  for  each  story,  if  there  are 
more  than  one  on  a  single  floor,  and  if  not,  a  distinc- 
tive signal  from  each  individual  box.  Not  more  than 
forty  boxes  should  be  on  any  one  circuit,  and  in 
most  instances  it  is  better  to  have  more  boxes,  fewer 
of  them  on  each  circuit  and  more  complete  systems, 
than  are  indicated  by  the  minimum  requirements 
which  I  have  set  down.  With  these  devices,  as 
with  others  in  the  matter  of  fire  protection,  it  is  a 
great  mistake  to  be  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish. 
Manual  alarms  have  a  feature  in  common  with  other 
devices  which  have  been  described  already,  in  that 
they  require  careful  testing  and  supervision.  They 
should  be  thoroughly  tested  not  less  frequently  than 


ALARM   DEVICES  139 

once  a  month.  They  are  not  to  be  recommended 
unless  they  operate  through  a  central  station  of  one 
sort  or  another.  It  is  frequently  the  custom  for 
companies  which  install  devices  of  this  kind  to  op- 
erate a  central  station  in  conjunction  with  them. 
Where  this  is  the  case,  the  central  station  and 
its  facilities,  as  well  as  its  connection  with  the  alarm 
boxes,  should  be  carefully  inspected  by  the  local  au- 
thorities. Companies  which  operate  stations  of  this 
character  should  be  prepared  to  furnish  daily  reports 
of  the  alarms  turned  in  at  the  central  stations  and 
other  data  which  may  be  used  as  a  check  upon  the  ef- 
ficiency of  their  service. 

The  central  stations  should  be  located  in  build- 
ings which  are  themselves  protected  from  fire,  pre- 
ferably of  fireproof  construction,  and  should  have 
accurate  instruments  for  recording  automatically  all 
the  signals  and  alarms  which  come  into  them.  The 
time  of  receiving  such  signals  should  also  be  noted 
by  an  automatic  device.  In  the  central  station  at 
least  two  men  should  be  on  duty  at  all  times  and  a 
system  of  messengers  or  runners  should  be  main- 
tained also,  so  that  no  building  which  has  the  pro- 
tection of  the  company  is  left  without  means  of  com- 
munication. These  runners  should  be  able  to  reach 
any  building  in  the  system  in  fifteen  minutes  or  less. 


140          FIRE    PREVENTION 

There  should  be  at  least  two  distinct  means  of  trans- 
mitting alarms  from  the  central  station  to  the  fire 
department.  The  circuits  by  which  all  the  work  of 
signalling  in  the  system  is  accomplished  should  be 
carefully  designed  and  protected  from  any  interfer- 
ence which  may  reasonably  be  expected  in  practice. 
Separate  "  trouble "  signals  should  indicate  any 
break  or  imperfection  in  the  circuits  by  means  of 
visual  and  audible  signs  of  one  sort  or  another. 
Thorough  tests  of  all  the  circuits  should  be  made 
at  least  four  times  in  every  twenty-four  hours. 

The  form  of  the  boxes  in  manual  systems  is  vari- 
ous, as  has  been  noted,  but  the  most  common  type 
and  perhaps  the  best*  on  the  whole,  is  the  familiar 
"  break  this  glass  "  box;  made  of  metal  with  a  glass 
"x/front  which  protects  a  hook  for  the  transmission  of 
alarm.  To  the  box  is  attached  by  a  chain  or  wire, 
a  metal  hammer  or  bar  with  which  the  glass  may  be 
readily  broken.  Other  types  require  the  turning  of 
a  crank  or  handle,  as  with  the  common  form  of 
street  box,  and  there  are  still  other  modifications  in 
different  makes.  All  should  be  painted  conspicu- 
ously in  bright  colours,  preferably  light  red,  and 
should  have  directions  posted  immediately  next 
them  in  one  or  more  languages.  Needless  to  say 
the  boxes  should  be  so  designed  that  they  can  be 


ALARM   DEVICES  141 

used  for  no  other  purpose  than  the  transmission  of 
alarms  of  fire. 

Still  another  protection  against  the  fire  foe  is 
found  in  the  various  systems  of  watchmen's  time-re- 
cording alarms  and  devices.  These  are  usually 
considered  more  effective  protective  measures  than 
a  mere  system  of  manual  alarms,  which,  after  all, 
are  only  devices  whereby  the  chance  observer  of  a 
fire  may  give  notice  of  its  existence.  Where  watch- 
men are  employed,  however,  and  a  record  of  their 
movements  and  activities  is  kept  by  mechanical  de- 
vices, there  is  constant  protection  by  a  sort  of  com- 
bined mehanical  and  human  agency.  This  system 
at  once  falls  to  the  ground  if  means  are  not  pro- 
vided whereby  a  completely  adequate  check  may  be 
kept  upon  the  watchmen,  and  from  this  necessity 
have  sprung  all  the  various  types  of  time-recording 
clocks,  portable  watch  clocks,  dials  and  so  forth. 

As  is  the  case  with  a  system  of  manual  alarms, 
these  watchmen  alarm  systems  are  susually  con- 
trolled through  a  central  station  which  is  frequently 
run  by  the  company  which  supplies  the  watchmen. 
The  same  requirements  apply  to  such  a  station  as 
to  a  station  for  manual  alarms.  In  addition,  pro- 
vision must  be  made  to  send  watch  signals,  distinct 
from  fire  signals,  from  each  station  installed.  The 


142          FIRE    PREVENTION 

boxes  from  which  the  watchmen  send  in  their  watch 
signals  must  be  so  placed  as  to  cover  the  entire  plant 
or  building  under  protection  and,  unless  unusual  con- 
ditions indicate  some  modification,  should  be  located 
in  the  same  situations  and  number  as  manual  alarms. 
Stationary  watchmen's  clocks  connected  with  a  sys- 
tem of  this  kind  should  run  at  least  eight  days  with- 
out rewinding. 

Such  a  clock  should  be  strongly  encased  in  a  way 
that  will  prevent  the  watch  dials  from  being  seen 
unless  the  door  of  the  clock  is  opened.  This  open- 
ing of  the  door  should  make  a  distinct  record  on 
the  dial  by  mechanical  means.  The  watch  records, 
or  records  of  rounds,  are  best  made  by  puncturing 
the  dial,  which  is  usually  of  paper,  and  the  device 
which  accomplishes  this  must  not  tear  or  deface  the 
dial  or  mark  it  in  any  way  to  interfere  with  easy 
reading.  In  some  cases  the  records  are  made  by 
embossing  rather  than  puncturing  the  dial,  but 
whichever  method  of  marking  is  employed,  the 
marks  should  be  clear  and  neat.  Portable  watch 
clocks  are  subject  to  the  same  general  rules  as  those 
of  a  stationary  character,  save  that  they  run  usually 
but  forty-eight  hours  without  rewinding.  The  dials 
which  are  used  on  this  form  of  clock  ought  to  be 
sufficiently  large  to  make  it  possible  to  determine 


Hard  at  Work  at  a  Hot  Blaze 

The   destructive   Car   Barn    fire   at    Madison    Avenue    and 
Eighty-sixth  Street,  New  York  City. 


ALARM   DEVICES  143 

with  accuracy  the  time  at  which  the  record  has  been 
made. 

It  is  well  to  have  keys  for  watch  clocks  of  rather 
an  elaborate  pattern  so  that  duplicates  cannot  easily 
be  made  and  so  that  one  key  will  have  little  likeli- 
hood of  fitting  any  other  clock  than  that  for  which 
it  was  originally  intended.  Not  more  than  five 
watchmen  should  be  assigned  to  any  one  circuit,  as 
a  limitation  of  this  sort  makes  for  reliability  and  ac- 
curacy of  record,  the  things  most  desirable,  after 
promptness,  in  systems  of  this  sort. 

A  word  as  to  the  qualifications  of  watchmen. 
Too  little  care  and  attention  is  frequently  given  to 
this  important  matter.  Not  only  should  the  charac- 
ter of  the  men  employed  for  service  of  this  kind 
be  high,  but  their  value  is  greatly  enhanced  if  they 
are  men  of  experience  in  fire  matters;  veteran  fire- 
men, or  men  whose  special  training  has  given  them 
understanding  of  the  special  dangers  and  danger 
points  which  their  task  is  likely  to  disclose.  There 
are  many  men  in  any  large  city  who,  by  reason  of 
age  or  some  physical  disability,  are  no  longer  fitted 
for  active  fire-fighting,  but  who  are  in  no  way  in- 
capacitated for  service  as  watchme'n.  Such  men 
should  be  chosen,  whenever  possible,  for  the  respon- 
sible task  of  guarding  valuable  property  from  fire. 


144          FIRE    PREVENTION 

Other  protective  measures,  not  in  the  nature  of 
alarm  systems  or  automatic  means  of  delivering 
water  on  a  blaze,  are  even  more  important  in  large 
buildings  than  in  small  ones.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  standpipes  with  hose  attachments.  These 
are  of  immense  value  to  any  large  building,  es- 
pecially if  it  be  of  unusual  height.  They  should 
have  hose  connections  on  every  floor  and  in  cases  in 
which  the  ground  area  is  large  or  the  building  of 
multiple  tenant  occupancy  there  should  be  a  number 
of  them  in  different  parts  of  the  structure  so  that  at 
least  one  may  be  available  in  case  of  need.  Hose 
for  such  standpipes  should  be  of  standard  size  and 
quality  and  is  best  kept  folded  on  racks  rather  than 
rolled,  as  has  been  the  common  practice  for  a  num- 
ber of  years.  In  many  cases  these  standpipes  within 
buildings  have  proved  powerful  allies  of  the  fire  de- 
partment in  the  battle  against  the  flames,  and  in  some 
special  structures  of  great  height,  of  which  I  shall 
have  more  to  say  later  on,  they  have  been  the  only 
available  means  of  getting  water  on  the  fire. 
Whenever  they  are  installed,  provision  should  be 
made  for  an  adequate  water  supply  and  their  condi- 
tion should  be  frequently  tested. 

In  addition  to  such  standpipes,  axes  and  hooks 
should  be  placed  in  convenient  locations  on  each 


ALARM   DEVICES  145 

floor  of  a  large  building,  and  the  chemical  extin- 
guishers, so  valuable  in  the  home,  should  by  no 
means  be  left  out  of  the  fire-fighting  equipment.  All 
of  these  things  contribute  to  the  protection  of  any 
structure,  great  or  small,  and  the  owner  who  does 
not  provide  for  them  and  take  a  vital  interest  in  their 
readiness  and  upkeep  is  extremely  shortsighted. 

As  in  the  dwelling,  elevators  are  danger  points 
in  the  loft  building,  the  office  building,  the  theatre, 
hotel,  school  or  other  large  edifice.  Where  many 
tenents  occupy  the  building,  as  in  the  case  of  sweat- 
shops and  lofts,  offices  and  hotels,  they  should  re- 
ceive especial  attention,  for  they  often  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  aiding  the  escape  of  persons  from  a, 
burning  structure.  There  should  be  enough  of 
them,  they  should  be  of  large  capacity,  both  of  con- 
tents and  of  lifting  power,  and  they  should  be  cut  off 
rigidly  from  the  rest  of  the  building.  There  is  no 
more  dangerous  condition  than  that  in  which  ele- 
vator shafts  open  out  on  each  floor  or  are  protected 
merely  by  gratings  or  lattice  through  which  air 
passes  without  check.  Shafts  of  this  character  are 
veritable  flues  up  which  a  fire  rushes  almost  gleefully, 
it  seems,  to  involve  story  after  story.  "  Mush- 
rooming "  is  the  technical  name  used  for  this  spread 
of  the  flames  through  shafts  and  vertical  openings 


146          FIRE    PREVENTION 

of  one  sort  or  another,  usually  those  in  which  are 
the  elevators.  It  is  only  necessary  to  stand  over 
the  crack  between  the  edge  of  the  elevator  floor  and 
sill  of  a  doorway  on  any  upper  floor  of  a  build- 
ing, to  feel  the  strong  current  of  air  which  has  gath- 
ered headway  through  the  scores,  or  it  may  be  hun- 
dreds, of  feet  below.  This  air  carries  flame  with 
the  speed  of  a  race  horse,  and  it  behooves  the  man 
who  would  protect  his  building  and  those  who  oc- 
cupy it  to  see  that  it  has  no  means  of  escape  from  the 
shaft  on  successive  floors. 

Protection  may  be  obtained  by  enclosing  the  shaft 
in  fireproof  walls  or  with  wired  glass  set  in  metal 
frames.  It  should  be  enhanced  by  having  the  shaft- 
doors  close  tightly  in  their  places,  so  that  air  leak- 
age is  minimised.  When  a  building  contains  open 
elevator  shafts,  around  which  flights  of  stairways, 
also  open  and  practically  in  the  same  shafts,  descend, 
it  presents  an  ideal  condition  for  a  tremendous  loss 
or  a  holocaust.  A  condition  of  this  kind  is  a  relic 
of  barbarism  from  the  fire  standpoint,  but  it  still 
exists  in  far  too  great  a  proportion  of  large  build- 
ings in  this  country. 

The  horrors  of  elevator  shafts  after  great  fires 
in  buildings  in  which  many  persons  are  housed  beg- 
gar description.  I  have  seen  so  many  times  the 


ALARM   DEVICES  147 

fruits  of  improper  protection  at  this  one  vulnerable 
point,  that  the  bottom  of  a  shaft  has  always  seemed 
to  me  a  place  of  dread,  just  like  the  bottom  of  a 
fire-escape  which  terminates  in  a  court — full  of 
promise  of  ghastly  heaps  of  bodies,  monuments  to 
criminal  carelessness  of  human  life. 

The  wonder  of  it  all  is  that  so  litle  indignation  is 
aroused  in  the  mind  of  the  public,  when  it  reads, 
week  after  week,  the  typical  newspaper  account  of 
fires.  '*  The  fire  spread  with  amazing  rapidity, 
leaping  up  the  elevator  shaft  (or  the  stairway) 
from  floor  to  floor  and  cutting  off  the  escape  of  the 
tenants.  Three  persons  (or  ten  or  twenty)  who 
had  reached  the  stairs  were  crowded  over  the  hand- 
rails and  fell  to  a  frightful  death  below,  or,  caught 
by  the  flames  before  they  could  descend,  were  burned 
to  death  where  they  stood."  Such  descriptions 
have  been  printed  hundreds  of  times,  and  yet  no- 
body seems  to  be  much  excited  about  it.  "  Another 
awful  fire,"  says  one  business  man  to  another  on  the 
way  downtown,  and  turns  with  a  shrug  to  a  more 
pleasant  bit  of  reading. 

This  apathy  in  regard  to  preventable  dangers  is 
the  chief  obstacle  to  better  conditions.  Things  like 
these  are  preventable  with  just  a  little  forethought, 
or  the  expenditure  of  few  hundreds  or  a  few  thou- 


i48          FIRE    PREVENTION 

sand  dollars  more,  at  the  most.  It  is  high  time  that 
the  American  people  realised  this  fact  and  bestirred 
themselves  to  set  right,  by  law,  if  need  be,  faults 
that  are  a  national  disgrace  and  a  disgrace  to  civili- 
sation. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  FIRE  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  LARGE  CITY 

THERE  is  no  service  rendered  in  this  country  more 
excellent  and  more  complete,  all  things  considered, 
than  that  which  is  rendered  by  the  fire  departments 
in  large  cities:  cities  of  the  first  class.  These  de- 
partments are,  on  the  whole,  well  organised,  well 
drilled,  well  officered  and  well  manned.  They  are 
equipped  with  the  best  apparatus  and  tools  with 
which  to  perform  their  arduous  work;  they  are  ex- 
tremely perfect  machines  for  the  performance  of  a 
specific  duty.  This  is  a  subject  for  thanksgiving, 
for  if  the  fire  departments  were  not  of  such  a  gen- 
erally high  order,  there  is  no  one  who  could  say  to 
what  enormous  proportions  the  national  fire  loss, 
caused  by  national  carelessness  and  national  ignor- 
ance, as  has  been  shown,  would  reach. 

Among  our  great  cities  the  excellence  of  the  de- 
partments varies,  as  might  be  expected.  That  of 
New  York  is  easily  the  best,  as  it  is  by  far  the 

largest.     It  holds  world's  records  for  promptness, 

149 


150          FIRE    PREVENTION 

efficiency  and  discipline  and  for  the  effective  front 
which  it  constantly  presents  to  the  enemy,  fire.  This 
leading  position  has  been  attained,  I  believe,  chiefly 
through  careful  organisation  and  discipline.  It  is 
a  semi-military  body,  and  herein  lies  its  strength, 
for  the  fire  department  of  any  large  city,  in  fully  as 
great  a  degree  as  the  police  department,  will  be  suc- 
cessful just  in  so  far  as  the  military  characteristics 
of  obedience,  smartness,  neatness  and  disregard  for 
danger  are  present.  It  must  be  an  organisation  to 
be  efficient,  not  a  mere  body  of  men  with  a  common 
object.  It  must  have  rank,  attained  through  merit, 
subdivision  under  graduated  authority  and  an  esprit 
de  corps  which  will  foster  pride  in  its  work  and  its 
record.  Without  these  features  a  department  soon 
becomes  spineless,  as  it  were,  and  useless  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  intended. 

The  fire  department  of  the  city  of  New  York  is 
so  well  organised  and  divided  that  it  may  well  be 
taken  as  a  model  for  all  cities  the  country  over,  with 
minor  modifications  due  to  special  geographical  or 
environmental  conditions.  The  uniformed  force 
comprised  the  following  members  on  the  3ist  of 
December,  1911:  One  chief  of  department;  15 
deputy  chiefs;  46  chiefs  of  battalion;  n  medical  of- 
ficers; 268  foremen  or  captains;  371  assistant  fore- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     151 

men,  or1  lieutenants;  446  engineers  of  steamers;  6 
marine  engineers;  20  pilots;  2,653  firemen  of  the 
first  grade;  176  firemen  of  the  second  grade;  175 
firemen  of  the  third  grade;  174  firemen  of  the 
fourth  grade;  and  58  firemen  on  probation.  This 
brought  the  total  up  to  4,420  officers  and  men. 

I  do  not  imply,  of  course,  that  all  cities  of  the  first 
class  should  have  a  force  equal  to  this  in  size,  but  the 
figures  for  New  York  indicate  the  method  of  appor- 
tionment of  officers  to  men  and  the  general  scheme 
of  subdivision  which  should  be  followed  in  order  to 
secure  an  efficient  department.  In  a  body  of  this 
sort  there  is  no  possibility  of  a  shift  of  responsibility. 
Each  man  is  directly  answerable  to  the  officer  next 
above  him  for  all  that  occurs  under  his  jurisdiction, 
while  the  chief  of  department  is  charged  with  the 
tremendously  grave  responsibility  of  the  whole  body 
and  must  be  ready  to  answer  for  its  efficiency  and 
complete  service  in  whole  or  in  part.  Under  him 
the  deputy  chiefs  have  charge  of  divisions,  which 
are  in  turn  divided  into  three  or  more  battalions, 
headed  by  battalion  chiefs,  under  whom  are  the  fore- 
men or  captains  of  companies,  which  consist  nor- 
mally of  twelve  men,  not  including  assistant  fore- 
men and  engineers  of  steamers.  The  analogy  of 
such  an  arrangement  to  an  army,  with  its  generals, 


152          FIRE    PREVENTION 

colonels,  majors,  captains,  lieutenants  and  non-com- 
missioned officers,  is  apparent.  In  such  co-opera- 
tive organisation  lies  success. 

After  the  question  of  correct  co-ordination  the 
next  most  vital  matter  in  the  creation  of  a  proper 
fire  department  is  the  selection  of  men.  Perhaps 
this  is  even  more  basic  than  the  outline  of  the  de- 
partment itself,  for  without  the  proper  fire-fighters, 
a  fire  department  will  prove  the  rankest  failure. 

At  any  rate,  the  choice  of  men  is  of  the  very  high- 
est importance.  I  hold  somewhat  radical  views  on 
this  matter,  with  which  I  know  a  number  of  muni: 
cipal  authorities,  civic  workers  and  students  of  gov- 
ernment do  not  agree.  Nevertheless,  my  views  are 
the  outcome  of  long  experience  and  close  observa- 
tion and  I  have  become  more  and  more  convinced  of 
their  correctness  as  the  years  have  gone  by.  I 
believe  thoroughly  in  Civil  Service  and  in  promo- 
tion without  favoritism  and  on  the  basis  of  merit, 
but  I  most  emphatically  do  not  believe  in  "  book 
firemen."  Men  for  a  fire  department  should  be 
chosen  primarily  on  the  basis  of  their  physique. 
Muscle  counts  for  more  than  mentality,  especially 
among  the  rank  and  file;  brawn  is  a  greater  asset 
than  brains. 

The  reason  for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.     To  be  a 


Hardships  a  Fireman  must  Face 
A  fire  in  Minnesota  with  the  temperature  54°  below  zero. 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     153 

"  smoke  eater,"  that  is  to  go  right  in  close  to  the 
heat  of  a  fire  and  put  it  out — the  only  way  to  ex- 
tinguish fires  with  any  degree  of  certainty — requires 
a  high  degree  of  physical  endurance  and  stamina. 
To  hold  a  play  pipe  on  a  two  and  a  half  or  three 
inch  hose  which  is  full  of  water  under  pressure  is 
more  than  one  man  can  do  at  best,  unless  he  be  a 
giant,  and  it  affords  plenty  of  exercise  for  two  able- 
bodied  men.  To  climb  slippery  ladders  and  roofs, 
to  break  in  doors,  to  perform  rescues  from  windows 
or  on  ladders  or  escapes,  to  withstand  exposure  in 
all  sorts  of  weather,  and  at  all  times  of  the  day  or 
night  and  with  a  modicum  of  sleep — all  these  things 
call  for  unusual  energy,  exceptional  muscular  and 
vital  power  and  a  sound  constitution.  Fire-fighting 
is  an  athletic  business,  in  which  the  men  are  in  con- 
stant training  and  in  contest  with  an  opponent  which 
demands  the  full  measure  of  exertion  and  effort  to 
best. 

It  is  for  all  these  reasons  that  I  deplore  the  ten- 
dency to  accept  firemen  on  the  basis  of  their  mental 
tests,  rather  than,  instead  of  in  addition  to,  their 
physical  tests,  which  has  been  creeping  into  many  a 
fire  department  of  late,  including  that  of  New  York. 
You  cannot  fight  fires  on  paper  or  by  theory.  You 
may  know  every  hydraulic  formula 'in  the  world  and 


154          FIRE    PREVENTION 

all  about  the  chemistry  of  oxidation  and  combus- 
tion, but  in  the  last  analysis,  if  you  are  a  fireman, 
taking  a  lead  of  hose  into  a  smoky  cellar  or  carrying 
an  unconscious  man  down  a  fifty-foot  ladder,  you 
are  going  to  find  an  extra  inch  of  chest  expansion 
or  a  few  additional  fibres  of  biceps  considerably 
more  useful  than  this  knowledge. 

I  think  enough  has  been  said  in  previous  chapters 
to  make  it  quite  plain  that  the  business  of  fire-fight- 
ing is  not  a  joke  or  something  to  be  taken  lightly. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  serious  and  responsible  occupa- 
tions in  the  world,  and  for  this  reason  it  behooves 
people  to  stop  and  think  about  so  vitally  important 
a  factor  as  the  personnel  of  the  fire-fighting  force. 
Every  man  who  is  not  physically  able  to  stand  the 
strain  which  will  be  put  upon  him  at  any  time,  in 
holding  out  against  smoke,  in  playing  a  stream  of 
water  under  intense  heat  or  in  the  bitter  cold,  or  in 
carrying  out  heavy  weights  from  burning  buildings 
on  insecure  footing  and  in  awkward  positions,  is 
a  danger  point  in  the  fire  department.  He  may 
prove  the  weak  link  in  the  chain  at  any  time  and  cost 
a  heavy  toll  in  lives  and  property.  If  the  depart- 
ment contains  many  of  this  kind,  it  is  atrophied  and 
useless. 

I  am  not  making  any  attack  on  knowledge  or  in- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     155 

telligence  in  themselves ;  both  are  requisites  if  a  man 
would  be  a  good  fireman  or  rise  above  the  ranks; 
both  are  to  be  sought  in  the  selection  of  men,  but 
brute  strength  must  not  be  sacrificed  as  long  as  fire 
is  fought  with  water.  When  we  have  discovered 
some  entirely  new  medium  for  the  extinguishment 
of  fires  or  developed  prevention  to  the  point  when 
no  fire  can  gain  headway,  then  it  will  be  time  enough 
to  usher  in  the  fireman  chosen  for  his  mathematical 
ability  or  his  educational  qualifications,  rather  than 
his  broad  chest  and  strong  arms. 

Of  course,  the  fireman,  once  in  the  department, 
should  be  encouraged  to  study  his  work  and  take 
pride  in  its  correct  accomplishment.  I  would  not  be 
understood  to  decry  study  and  brain  work  as  ap- 
plied to  fire-fighting.  They  are  essential,  and,  as  in 
any  other  walk  of  life,  the  more  technical  knowledge 
a  man  has  and  the  more  he  understands  his  work 
the  more  skilful  he  will  be  in  applying  his  strength 
or  directing  the  energy  of  others.  One  broad  prin- 
ciple in  fire-fighting  always  holds  true,  however. 
It  sounds  like  a  truism,  but  it  is  more  than  that. 
Firemen  go  to  a  fire  to  put  it  out;  not  to  speculate 
about  it,  or  theorise  about  it  or  watch  it,  or  incom- 
mode it;  but  to  extinguish  it  at  the  first  possible  mo- 
ment and  absolutely.  If  a  fireman  does  that,  I  do 


156          FIRE    PREVENTION 

not  care  whether  he  does  it  by  rule  of  thumb  or  by 
the  application  of  the  most  scientific  principles. 

The  organisation  and  the  personnel  of  the  de- 
partment decided  upon,  the  next  step  is  to  secure 
an  efficient  and  reliable  alarm  system.  The  best 
standard  boxes  of  the  keyless  type  should  be  part 
of  a  system  equipped  with  underground  wires  or 
cables,  a  protected  receiving  and  distributing  sta- 
tion or  headquarters  in  which  proper  and  well-tested 
instruments  record  all  alarms,  and  a  thoroughly  up- 
to-date  method  of  transmitting  those  alarms  to  the 
company  quarters.  Overhead  wires  are  a  danger- 
ous defect  in  many  departments.  The  practice  of 
stringing  them  on  high  tension  poles  is  especially 
pernicious.  The  whole  work  of  the  department  is 
crippled  without  adequate  alarm  and  telegraph 
equipment.  It  should  be  a  first  consideration  in  all 
cities. 

Some  idea  of  the  scope  of  the  fire  alarm  telegraph 
system  may  be  had  from  the  fact  that  in  Greater 
New  York,  in  1911,  16,023  alarms  were  received, 
of  which  14,574  were  for  actual  fires. 

A  sufficiently  large  force  of  firemen  is  an  essential 
for  effective  service.  No  less  essential  is  a  sufficiently 
large  supply  of  first-class  apparatus  and  tools. 
Cheap  apparatus  is  the  poorest  sort  of  economy; 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     157 

the  best  that  can  be  obtained  should  always  be  pur- 
chased, for  by  this  means  only  can  security  be  at 
tained,  and  the  best  fire  department  in  the  world  is 
useless  without  proper  implements  with  which  to 
fight  the  foe.  Bad  hose,  bursting  just  when  it  is 
most  needed,  heavy  and  unwieldy  or  antiquated 
engines  or  trucks,  out-of-date  or  imperfect  appa- 
ratus of  any  kind  is  to  be  avoided  as  the  plague. 
It  will  nullify  the  best  efforts  of  the  department 
sooner  or  later. 

An  adequate  water  supply  is  another  essential  of  ^/ 
the  effective  fire  department.  It  must  be  able  to 
meet  not  merely  the  ordinary  requirements  of  small 
fires  and  few  fires,  but  must  also  be  prepared  for 
emergencies,  when  the  demand  on  it  will  be  many 
times  greater  than  the  normal.  Wherever  it  is 
possible  high  pressure  systems  should  be  installed, 
as  they  form  an  invaluable  adjunct  to  the  modern 
fire  department;  wherever,  for  any  reason,  they  can- 
not be  installed,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that 
the  water  mains  are  of  ample  size  and  the  hydrants 
of  a  modern  type  and  equipped  with  couplings  of 
standard  size.  Unless  they  desire  to  have  their  fire- 
fighting  machinery  handicapped  at  the  start  the  citi- 
zens of  any  large  city  will  see  that  this  vital  matter 
is  attended  to.  One  of  the  factors  that  made  the 


158  FIRE    PREVENTION 

loss  so  enormous  in  the  San  Francisco  conflagration 
was  the  fact  that  the  fire  department  was  rendered 
practically  useless  by  the  rupture  of  the  water  mains 
by  the  earthquake.  In  many  portions  of  the  burning 
city  no  attempt  even  could  be  made  to  fight  the 
flames,  and  the  fires  were  simply  left  to  do  their 
ruinous  work. 

It  is  essential  that  all  the  officers  and  men  of  each 
fire  company  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
conditions  within  the  district  in  which  that  company 
is  located,  just  as  it  is  essential  that  each  chief  officer 
should  know  the  conditions  within  his  larger  field 
of  activity.  By  knowledge  of  the  conditions  I  mean 
complete  familiarity  with  the  buildings  and  their  ar- 
rangements, the  character  of  work  that  goes  on  in 
them;  knowledge  of  the  type  and  size  of  the  water 
mains  and  hydrants,  as  well  as  of  the  boxes  and  other 
portions  of  the  alarm  system.  In  order  to  attain 
this  knowledge  each  man  should  have  the  task  of 
inspecting  the  buildings  within  his  immediate  dis- 
trict not  less  than  twice  each  year.  In  this  way  he 
will  not  only  become  familiar  with  their  construction 
and  contents,  but  will  be  of  material  assistance  in 
reporting  bad  conditions  and  violations  of  one  sort 
or  another. 

When  a  fireman  joins  the  force,  or  when  he  is 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     159 

promoted  to  a  higher  rank  he  should  always  be  as- 
signed to  one  of  the  busiest  districts  of  the  city  and 
kept  there  for  not  less  than  two  years.  In  this  way 
alone  can  he  receive  the  necessary  practical  experi- 
ence to  fit  him  for  a  proper  discharge  of  his  duties; 
for  the  only  way  to  learn  to  fight  fire  successfully 
is  to  fight  it  constantly  at  first  hand  and  near  the 
heat.  Firemen  should  not  be  taken  from  their  ac- 
tive fire-fighting  duties  in  order  to  perform  clerical 
work  or  other  routine  labour  which  can  be  better  and 
more  economically  performed  by  civilians.  This 
practice  is  unfortunately  a  growing  one.  Its  worst 
features  are  the  fostering  of  a  spirit  of  dissatisfac- 
tion and  enmity  and  the  disruption  of  discipline 
through  favouritism.  Details  of  this  kind  are  never 
satisfactory,  as  the  fireman  can  neither  do  clerical 
work  well,  as  a  rule,  nor  are  the  other  members 
of  his  company  rendered  cheerful  by  having  to  do 
his  share  of  actual  fire  duty  for  him.  The  practice 
should  be  rooted  out. 

The  book  of  rules  of  any  city  department  should 
be  carefully  and  clearly  drawn  and  emphasise  the 
quasi-military  nature  of  the  force.  It  should  be 
amended  as  infrequently  as  possible  and  perfect 
clarity  of  expression  should  be  striven  for.  The 
"  engine  house  lawyer,"  or  amateur  interpreter  of 


160          FIRE    PREVENTION 

the  rules  of  the  department,  made  indispensable  by 
a  complicated  book  of  rules  or  the  issuance  of  con- 
stant minor  changes  in  the  regulations,  is  a  nuisance 
and  usually  a  cause  of  trouble.  Punishment  for  in- 
fringements of  the  rules  should  rest  in  the  hands  of 
the  chief  of  department  or  with  a  board  of  chief  of- 
ficers of  the  uniformed  force,  for  the  reason  that 
these  men  know  the  character  of  the  firemen  and 
their  environment  from  personal  experience  and 
thus  are  able  to  deal  with  their  troubles  in  an  intelli- 
gent and  discriminating  way.  Moreover,  they  are 
usually  free,  in  any  properly  organised  and  admin- 
istered department,  from  the  influences  exerted  by 
politics  or  other  forces,  and  can  thus  act  as  impartial 
judges  in  the  cases  which  come  before  them. 

As  in  any  other  organisation  of  men  who  are 
under  orders  from  commanders,  nothing  is  here 
more  subversive  of  discipline  than  favouritism.  The 
men  of  the  department  will  not  do  their  best  work 
unless  they  are  well  led,  unless  they  feel  they  will 
all  have  equal  chance  and  unless  .they  have  faith 
in  the  courage  and  discretion  of  those  above  them  in 
rank.  They  should  always  feel  assured  that  their 
commanders  have  their  interests  at  heart  and  that 
they  will  not  be  ordered  to  a  place  of  danger  unless 
it  is  vitally  necessary  and  unless  their  commander 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A   CITY     161 

is  ready  and  willing  to  go  himself  and  lead  them 
if  need  be.  Men  soon  learn  to  follow  promptly 
and  without  question  the  right  kind  of  leadership, 
and  I  have  always  found  that  once  they  were  certain 
that  the  man  who  ordered  them  into  a  bad-looking 
place  had  either  been  there  himself  or  was  ready  to 
go  with  them,  they  went  at  their  work  with  a  will 
and  faced  cheerfully  the  perils  which  are  a  part  of 
every  fireman's  business. 

It  has  always  been  my  feeling  that  one  of  the 
most  important  matters  in  connection  with  the  fire 
department  of  a  large  city  was  the  relation  and 
mutual  powers  of  its  Fire  Commissioner,  or  board  of 
Commissioners,  and  its  Chief  of  Department.  In 
other  words,  the  relation  between  the  uniformed 
head  of  the  uniformed  force  and  the  civilian  head 
of  the  department  as  a  whole.  This  is  a  matter 
which  has  been  adjusted  in  a  number  of  different 
ways  in  different  cities,  with  varying  degrees  of  suc- 
cess, and  as  it  is  invariably  a  crucial  point  in  the  ef- 
ficiency and  organisation  of  the  department,  it  re- 
quires careful  attention. 

Naturally  I  am  more  familiar  with  conditions  in 
New  York  than  in  any  other  city,  and  so  it  seems 
better  to  describe  the  system  of  mutual  control 
which  has  been  in  force  in  the  New  York  depart- 


162          FIRE   PREVENTION 

ment  and  attempt  to  discover  its  good  and  its  bad 
points.  Unfortunately  there  are  more  of  the  lat- 
ter than  of  the  former.  Much  friction  has  been 
the  rule  in  the  past  and  much  friction  is  destined  to 
prevail,  in  my  opinion,  as  long  as  the  present  uncer- 
tainties and  anomalies  of  control  exist.  The  New 
York  system  is  certainly  open  to  improvement  in 
this  regard,  and  I  am  hopeful  that  steps  in  the  right 
direction  may  be  taken  by  the  proper  authorities. 
I  feel  that  these  authorities  would  at  once  act  if  they 
could  be  brought  to  realise  the  serious  handicap 
which  the  present  system  imposes  upon  the  proper 
working  of  the  department. 

Up  to  the  time  when  I  retired  from  the  position 
of  Chief  of  the  fire  department,  the  system  for  many 
years  had  been  to  have  either  a  board  of  Com- 
missioners or  a  single  Commissioner,  appointed  by 
the  Mayor  in  either  case,  as  the  executive  head  of 
the  department.  He  was  in  no  sense  an  officer  of 
the  active  force  or  a  fire-fighter,  and  no  part  of  his 
duty,  although  it  was  his  undoubted  privilege,  was  to 
attend  fires.  His  duties  lay  rather  in  the  direction  of 
supervising  the  financial  and  business  end  of  the  de- 
partment's activities,  attending  to  its  purchases  and 
the  acquirement  of  its  new  sites  and  supervising  its 
general  activities  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Chief. 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     163 

To  the  Chief  should  belong  the  entire  responsibility 
for  and  authority  over  the  uniformed  force.  In 
this  matter  the  Commissioner  has  properly  no  voice. 
He  is  usually  in  the  department  for  far  too  short  a 
time  to  have  anything  like  a  thorough  acquaintance 
either  with  its  work  or  its  personnel. 

For  this  reason  the  Chief  should  have  not  only 
absolute  voice  in  the  conduct  of  his  men  at  a  fire 
and  in  fire  houses,  but  should  have  at  least  equal  au- 
thority with  the  Commissioner,  authority  prescribed 
by  statute,  in  all  matters  of  promotions,  transfers 
and  assignments,  the  appointment  of  firemen  and  the 
selection  of  the  apparatus,  tools  and  implements 
of  which  he  and  they  are  to  make  use  in  fighting  the 
flames.  With  the  Chief  rests  the  responsibility  of 
putting  out  fires;  to  him  also  should  be  left  the 
choice  of  the  men  and  the  implements  with  which 
he  is  to  do  his  work. 

This  happy  condition  of  affairs  has  not  been 
found  in  New  York  of  late  years,  however.  The 
Commissioners  have  nearly  all  been  overanxious  to 
show  their  authority  and  to  arrogate  to  themselves 
powers  which  are  properly  those  of  the  Chief. 
They  have  constituted  themselves  fire-fighters,  know- 
ing nothing  of  the  task,  and  have  gradually  en- 
croached upon  the  sphere  of  the  Chiefs  until  at  the 


1 64          FIRE    PREVENTION 

present  time  the  laws  make  the  Chief  little  more 
than  a  figurehead,  except  that  he  takes  actual  com- 
mand, when  there  is  a  fire  at  which  he  attends,  over 
men  in  whose  selection,  transfer,  assignment  and 
discipline,  when  not  in  action,  he  has  little  or  no 
voice.  It  is  readily  comprehensible  that  such  a 
system  makes  for  inefficiency  and  is  subversive  of 
all  true  discipline.  I  have  fears  for  the  future  of 
the  great  department  of  this  city,  or  of  any  city 
which  follows  this  practice,  not  because  of  any  fault 
of  the  men  or  officers  themselves,  but  because  of  the 
defects  of  the  system. 

It  seems  that  there  should  be  no  necessity  for  ar- 
gument on  this  point,  once  its  true  character  is  made 
clear,  but  the  powers  of  the  Commissioner  are  grow- 
ing so  rapidly  that  I  am  inclined  to  reiterate  my  pro- 
test. Of  what  value,  to  put  the  case  concretely,  can 
the  years  of  experience  of  a  chief  of  department 
be,  including  his  work  in  all  ranks  and  grades  of  the 
organisation  and  his  inevitable  heritage  of  attend- 
ance at  thousands  of  fires,  if  his  forces  and  his 
weapons  are  to  be  determined  and  really  ruled  by  a 
civilian  who,  in  all  probability,  has  never  directed 
a  stream  from  a  fire  hose  and  has  no  knowledge  of 
the  workings  of  the  fire  department?  Discipline, 
esprit  de  corps,  loyalty  and  absolute  obedience  of 
orders,  fostered  by  complete  confidence  in  the  su- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     165 

perior  officer;  these  are  the  very  watchwords  of 
successful  fire-fighting.  They  will  vanish  if  the  au- 
thority of  the  Chief  of  any  department  is  tampered 
with. 

If  harmony  and  co-operation  between  the  Com- 
missioner and  the  Chief  is  essential,  so  also  harmony 
between  the  department  as  a  whole  and  the  other 
departments  of  the  city  is  of  vital  importance.  This 
is  true  of  all  the  departments  with  which  the  fire  de- 
partment has  to  do  in  a  greater  or  less  degree;  the 
water  department,  building  department,  health  de- 
partment, tenement  house  department,  and  police 
department.  Frequently  during  my  experience  as 
a  fireman,  cases  have  arisen  in  which  this  harmony 
was  lacking.  There  has  been  a  tendency  to  shift 
the  blame  for  a  disaster  or  the  continuance  of  a  vio- 
lation from  the  shoulders  of  one  department  to 
those  of  some  other,  and  there  have  been  signs  of 
jealously  and  harmful  rivalry.  This  is  by  no  means 
as  it  should  be.  There  is  no  reason  for  it.  The 
fire  department  may  properly  work  in  entire  amity 
and  co-operation  with  the  other  branches  of  muni- 
cipal authority  in  any  great  city.  The  more  com- 
plete the  accord  the  better  the  results  will  be. 

One  reason  for  the  unfortunate  tendency  of  de- 
partments to  pull  in  opposite  directions  is  the  deplor- 
able lack  of  definitions  of  their  respective  powers  in 


166          FIRE   PREVENTION 

many  of  the  large  cities  of  this  country.  Violations 
placed  by  one  department  must,  under  present  condi- 
tions, be  rectified  by  the  authority  of  another;  they 
may  even  have  to  pass  through  three  sets  of  hands 
before  the  proper  mandatory  order  can  be  issued. 
Such  a  condition,  of  course,  makes  for  laxness  and 
weakness,  and  is  one  of  the  many  things  in  relation 
to  the  fire  hazard  which  cries  out  for  immediate 
reform.  To  illustrate  my  meaning:  The  fire  de- 
partment, through  its  regular  officers,  or  its  sep- 
arate bureau  of  prevention,  as  the  case  may  be,  in- 
spects a  certain  premises  and  finds  certain  violations. 
These  it  reports  to  the  building  department;  this  de- 
partment in  turn  may  be  forced  to  call  upon  the 
police  department  in  order  to  have  its  ruling  en- 
forced. 

Division  of  authority  of  this  character  naturally 
leads  to  chaotic  conditions,  and  it  is  as  stupid  as  it  is 
unnecessary.  The  solution  lies  in  giving  the  fire  de- 
partment some  measure  of  police  power,  so  that  it 
can  itself  enforce  the  regulations  which  are  proper 
to  safeguard  life  and  property.  A  case  in  point, 
where  this  is  especially  necessary,  is  in  the  matter  of 
clearing  out  accumulations  of  rubbish.  In  many  a 
tenement  in  the  city  of  New  York,  for  instance,  the 
cellar  is  little  better  than  a  junk  heap.  Piles  of  ref- 
use and  rubbish  make  it  a  positive  menace  to  the 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     167 

building  and  the  lives  of  all  within  it.  When  the 
fire  department  discovers  a  condition  of  this  kind  it 
should  have  the  power  not  merely  to  report  the  vio- 
lation, to  the  health  department  or  some  other 
branch  of  the  municipal  government,  but  to  order 
the  owner  of  the  tenement  to  abate  the  nuisance 
forthwith,  or  within  twenty-four  hours.  If  this  order 
is  not  complied  with  it  should  have  the  further  power 
either  of  eviction  or  arrest,  or  of  having  the  danger- 
ous cellar  cleared  out  by  the  city,  at  the  expense  of 
the  responsible  person. 

With  powers  of  this  kind,  by  which  it  could  en- 
force its  regulations  as  to  rubbish,  fire-escapes,  exit 
facilities,  extinguishing  apparatus,  etc,  the  fire  de- 
partment could  be  a  much  more  powerful  agency 
than  it  now  is  in  the  work  of  fire  prevention.  It 
could,  by  this  means,  eliminate  many  of  the  condi- 
tions in  our  great  cities  most  dangerous  from  a  fire 
standpoint.  The  special  knowledge  of  its  officers 
and  men,  as  well  as  their  training  in  noting  the  dan- 
gerous conditions  which  they  observe  in  buildings, 
could  thus  be  put  to  account  in  a  practical  way;  this 
knowledge  and  training  makes  them  the  logical  au- 
thority, in  all  matters  connected  with  fire  and  com- 
bating it.  By  thus  localising  the  power  of  enforce- 
ment in  these  matters  much  of  the  present  friction 
and  division  of  authority  between  different  branches 


i68          FIRE   PREVENTION 

of  civic  government  would  also  be  avoided.  I 
earnestly  hope  that  chambers  of  commerce,  mer- 
chants' associations  and  similiar  bodies  in  the  great 
cities  of  the  country  will  make  it  their  business  to 
bring  about  this  reform,  which  seems  to  me  of  vital 
consequence  for  the  reduction  of  our  tribute  to  fire. 

The  vital  points,  then,  in  the  organisation  of  a 
city  fire  department,  are :  Proper  subdivision  of  the 
department  to  make  it  a  semi-military  organisation; 
proper  selection  of  the  men  with  a  view  to  their  phy- 
sical as  well  as  mental  qualifications;  proper  training 
of  the  men  by  hard  work  and  inspection  duty;  proper 
governance  of  the  men  by  proper  officers  of  the  uni- 
formed force  who  understand  their  needs  and  duties; 
proper  division  of  authority  between  the  Commis- 
sioner and  the  Chief,  so  that  the  Chief  is  able  to 
maintain  absolute  respect  and  discipline  in  the  force ; 
proper  relation  between  the  fire  department  and  the 
other  departments  of  the  city,  to  insure  harmony  of 
action,  and  proper  delegation  of  police  authority  to 
the  fire  department,  to  enable  it  to  deal  witn  bad  con- 
ditions and  enforce  their  rectification  by  stubborn  or 
lawless  owners. 

A  department  thus  organised  will  do  splendid 
work. 


CHAPTER   X 

FIRE    DEPARTMENT   OF    A    LARGE    CITY — Continued 

OF  the  details  of  the  organisation  of  an  efficient 
fire  department,  one  of  the  most  important  is  the  dis- 
tribution and  apportionment,  or  assignment,  of  the 
various  engine,  hook  and  ladder,  water  tower  and 
other  companies  so  that  they  will  adequately  cover 
the  area  to  be  protected  and  fulfil  this  requisite  condi- 
tion without  waste  or  overlapping.  Naturally  the 
number  of  companies  in  any  given  district  of  a 
city  will  depend  not  only  upon  the  number  in  the 
entire  department,  but  also  on  the  conditions  within 
that  district:  whether  there  are  especially  hazardous 
structures  there,  whether  the  crowding  and  conges- 
tion of  the  tenants  makes  for  peril,  and  other  sim- 
ilar considerations. 

In  some  of  the  outlying  districts  the  number  of 
companies  required  is  comparatively  small,  although 
too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  non- 
congestion  and  comparatively  thin  upbuilding  of 

such  districts.     What  they  lack  in  importance   of 

169 


170          FIRE   PREVENTION 

fires  they  frequently  make  up  in  frequency  of  fires, 
thus  keeping  the  companies  stationed  there  extremely 
active.  It  goes  without  saying,  however,  that  the 
areas  of  special  hazard  and  unusual  congestion  are 
those  which  call  for  the  greatest  number  of  fire  com- 
panies. Such  areas  are  usually  found  in  the  finan- 
cial district,  the  dry  goods  district,  the  district  of 
lofts  and  sweatshops  and  the  theatre  district,  in  any 
city.  In  New  York  these  special  areas  and  half  a 
dozen  others  are  provided  with  many  companies, 
so  placed  that  their  forces  may  be  rapidly  concen- 
trated in  case  of  emergency.  This  is  a  subject  on 
which  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  specific  rules,  be- 
cause of  the  necessary  variation  of  local  conditions, 
but  it  is  also  well  to  remember  that  too  many  com- 
panies in  any  district  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  to 
too  few.  Assignments  in  New  York,  that  is  to  say 
the  plan  upon  which  companies  respond  to  fires,  are 
usually  so  arranged  that  from  two  to  four  engines, 
from  one  to  two  hook  and  ladders,  or  trucks,  and  in 
many  districts  a  water  tower,  respond  to  every  first 
alarm  from  a  street  box.  In  addition  a  battalion 
chief  and  perhaps  a  deputy  chief  also  respond  on 
a  first  alarm  and  the  chief  of  department  may  even 
respond  as  well  if  the  box  "  pulled  "  is  in  a  particu- 
larly dangerous  location,  and  the  alarm  comes  at 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     171 

night.  Thus  it  was  always  my  custom  to  respond  on 
first  alarms  at  night  from  all  boxes  in  the  area  south 
of  23rd  Street  and  west  of  the  Bowery,  correspond- 
ing roughly  to  the  great  financial  and  wholesale  dis- 
trict. 

It  would  not  be  necessary  in  all  cities  to  have  so 
much  apparatus  turned  out  on  the  first  alarm.  One 
steamer  and  a  truck,  or  an  engine  and  a  combination 
hose  and  chemical  wagon,  carrying  ladders,  might  be 
entirely  sufficient,  but  this  is  a  matter  which  local 
conditions  alone  can  govern.  The  practice  in  New 
York  has  been  to  have  an  equal  or  approximately 
equal  number  of  pieces  of  apparatus  to  that  sum- 
moned by  the  first  alarm  respond  to  each  successive 
alarm  up  to  the  fifth.  It  is  customary  also  to  have 
certain  special  pieces  of  apparatus,  such  as  fuel 
wagons,  respond  in  cases  of  alarms  of  greater  mag- 
nitude than  the  first.  Such  pieces  of  apparatus  may 
also  be  obtained  by  special  calls  or  signals  issued  by 
the  officer  in  command,  a  method  usually  employed 
when  seldom-used  machines,  such  as  searchlight  en- 
gines, are  wanted.  The  method  of  summoning  such 
special  weapons  against  the  enemy  may  also  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  local  authorities  for  decision. 
Experience  in  the  best  teacher  in  these  matters. 

In  any  case,  however,  it  is  essential  to  provide  for 


FIRE   PREVENTION 

some  method  of  protection  in  those  portions  of  a  city 
which  have  been  left  exposed  by  the  calling  out  of  the 
companies  stationed  therein  in  answer  to  second  or 
greater  alarm. 

This  may  be  accomplished  in  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent ways.  Two  methods  in  conjunction  are  used 
successfully  in  New  York.  The  first  Is  to  have  so- 
called  "  double  companies  "  here  and  there  through- 
out the  city.  These  companies  are  just  what  their 
name  implies;  that  is  to  say  they  have  a  complete 
double  set  of  apparatus  and  horses  and  twice  the 
usual  complement  of  men  and  officers.  When,  for 
any  reason,  the  first  company  is  called  out  of  the 
district  it  normally  covers  on  first  alarms,  the  second 
company  is  always  in  readiness  to  take  up  its  work 
and  give  protection,  should  another  fire  occur  in  the 
district  during  the  first  company's  absence.  There 
are  twenty-two  companies  thus  equipped  in  the  city 
of  New  York. 

The  second  method  of  affording  protection  in  a 
district  denuded  of  apparatus,  is  to  have  certain  com- 
panies, picked  out  here  and  there  from  districts  from 
which  their  absence  seems  least  dangerous,  "  locate  " 
for  the  time  being  in  the  empty  quarters,  acting  while 
there  just  as  the  regular  company  would  do.  Each 
of  these  methods  is  to  be  recommended  and  in  very 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     173 

large  cities  it  seems  to  me  advisable  to  employ  both. 
By  a  sort  of  strange  fatality  many  serious  fires  seem 
to  break  out  just  at  the  time  when  some  other  big 
fire  is  raging.  At  such  times  double  companies  and 
plans  of  "  location,"  as  the  substituting  is  called,  are 
of  great  value  in  lessening  the  risk  of  conflagration. 
I  remember  one  occasion  when  serious  fires  were 
under  way  at  the  same  time  in  three  different  parts 
of  the  city.  Any  one  of  them  was  of  sufficient  mag- 
nitude to  cause  anxiety,  and  these  fires  burning  simul- 
taneously marked  a  red-letter  day  of  the  wrong  kind 
in  my  calendar.  The  first  fire  occurred  at  Franklin 
and  Hudson  Streets,  a  wholesale  grocery  house; 
during  the  progress  of  that  fire  another  fire  origi- 
nated at  the  Bowery  and  Hester  Street  in  a  building 
occupied  by  a  furniture  house,  while  the  third  fire 
was  at  Broadway  and  Houston  Street,  in  a  wholesale 
millinery  house,  all  within  a  distance  of  twenty 
blocks  from  one  another.  All  the  fires  were  in  the 
high  pressure  territory  and  all  were  successfully 
handled  without  the  assistance  of  a  steam  fire  engine. 
The  fire  department  had  out  of  quarters  at  one  time 
1 68  pieces  of  apparatus  and  about  600  officers  and 
men  working  at  these  fires,  but  plenty  of  apparatus 
was  left  in  quarters  to  cope  with  any  fire  which  might 
have  occurred. 


i74          FIRE    PREVENTION 

The  principal  pieces  of  apparatus  for  the  use  of 
the  fire  department  of  a  large  city  are :  The  pumping 
engine;  the  hook  and  ladder,  or  truck;  the  water 
tower;  the  fireboat,  if  ocean,  river  or  lake  make  it 
practicable;  the  hose  wagon  or  tender;  the  special 
hose  wagon,  if  the  city  has  a  high  pressure  system; 
the  searchlight  engine,  and  the  conveyances  of  chief 
officers,  fuel  and  extra  parts. 

The  pumping  engine  should  be  of  large  size  and 
capacity — 800  to  1,000  gallons  per  minute,  but  in  no 
sense  cumbersome  or  unwieldy.  Although  there 
are  a  number  of  makes  of  gasolene  pumping  engines 
now  coming  into  use,  I  believe  the  steam  engine  is 
more  reliable  as  yet  and  would  not  recommend  too 
widespread  installation  of  the  newer  type  until  more 
exhaustive  tests  of  its  efficiency  and  certainty  of  ac- 
tion have  been  made.  For  motor  power  as  drawing 
force  there  is  more  to  be  said,  especially  for  the 
separate  tractor,  such  as  is  in  use  in  New  York.  In 
this  form  of  vehicle  the  propelling  force  is  housed  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  in  a  separate  machine  which 
draws  along  the  actual  fire-fighting  implement.  On 
the  whole,  although  the  horse  is  doomed  eventually 
to  disappear  from  the  fire  department,  I  would  coun- 
sel the  retention  of  many  pieces  of  horse-drawn  ap- 
paratus for  some  time  to  come,  until  motor  appara- 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     175 

tus  has  reached  a  greater  perfection.  One  exceed- 
ingly expensive  motor  engine  purchased  for  the  New 
York  department  has  not  given  satisfactory  service 
and  has  been  relegated  to  the  junk  heap,  having 
spent  a  large  portion  of  its  department  life  in  repair 
shops. 

Tenders  and  high  pressure  hose  carts  lend  them- 
selves with  more  security  to  motor  propulsion. 
Some  of  the  high  pressure  wagons,  which  practically 
take  the  place  of  engines  in  the  high  pressure  zone, 
have  given  splendid  service.  It  goes  without  saying 
that  they  are  more  speedy  than  horse-drawn  appara- 
tus and  they  also  may  be  maintained  and  operated 
at  a  much  lower  cost. 

Engine  tenders  should  carry  a  thousand  feet  of 
hose,  half  of  which  should  be  high  pressure  hose,  if 
the  city  has  a  high  pressure  system.  High  pressure 
wagons,  in  addition  to  hose,  are  equipped  with  stand- 
pipes  or  play  pipes  and  must  be  fitted  to  carry  to  the 
fire  all  the  men  of  the  company. 

Trucks  should  be  provided  with  a  plentiful  supply 
of  ladders,  including  those  of  the  extension  variety. 
One  of  these  should  be  capable  of  being  extended 
rapidly  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  eighty-five  feet. 
Trucks  are  unwieldy  things  at  best,  both  to  get  out 
of  quarters  and  when  once  in  the  streets.  It  is  wise, 


176          FIRE   PREVENTION 

therefore,  to  make  a  careful  selection^  of  models, 
choosing  those  that  combine  the  greatest  strength 
and  range  of  ladders,  with  the  least  unwieldness 
and  awkwardness  of  design.  They  should  be  fitted 
to  carry  all  the  men  of  the  truck  company.  Motor 
trucks  are  still  rarities. 

Water  towers  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be 
easily  elevated  and  controlled  and  should  be  high 
enough  to  send  a  horizontal  stream  into  a  building 
at  a  height  of  eighty  feet.  They  also  must  carry 
their  crew  to  the  scene  of  the  fire.  They  should  be 
equipped  with  deck  pipes  as  well  as  with  a  tower  it- 
self. With  the  constantly  increasing  height  of  build- 
ings the  towers  are  increasing  their  usefulness  as  fac- 
tors in  the  fire  department.  If  buildings  in  future 
can  be  kept  within  reasonable  limits  in  regard  to 
height,  the  towers  will  always  prove  of  importance 
in  getting  the  best  of  the  flames. 

Searchlight  engines  are  sometimes  of  great  value. 
They  are  best  made  in  the  form  of  a  small  steam 
engine  and  are  equipped  with  two  powerful  search- 
lights, so  mounted  as  to  give  a  wide  range  of  direc- 
tion, and  supplied  with  light  from  the  engine's  own 
generators.  These  engines  are  usually  light  enough 
to  be  drawn  by  two  horses.  There  are  three  of 
them  in  the  New  York  fire  department,  and  they 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A    CITY     177 

have  rendered  important  service  on  many  occasions, 
in  my  experience.  These  pieces  of  apparatus  are 
especially  useful  at  large  fires  involving  entire  build- 
ings, which  have  destroyed  the  lighting  system  within 
the  structure  and  rendered  some  form  of  illumina- 
tion necessary  for  the  successful  work  of  the  fire- 
men. Of  course  in  many  cases  the  lights  from  the 
streets  prove  sufficient,  but  when  it  is  desirable  to 
light  up  the  entire  front  or  side  of  a  building,  so  that 
the  firemen  may  see  plainly  to  perform  a  delicate 
task,  such  as  a  rescue  with  scaling  ladders  or  the 
ghastly  work  of  lowering  bodies,  the  powerful 
searchlights  are  extremely  useful.  Moreover,  their 
beams  may  be  so  thrown  that  they  will  even  shed  a 
good  deal  of  light  within  the  buildings  themselves, 
and  thus  assist  the  firemen  in  their  work. 

The  wagons  which  carry  chief  officers  to  and  from 
fires  may  be  of  any  desired  type,  but  this  is  a  part  of 
the  department  which  naturally  and  beneficially  lends 
itself  to  motorisation.  There  are  a  number  of 
makes  of  small  runabouts  which  give  extremely  re- 
liable service,  and  are  ideally  suited  to  carry  the  bat- 
talion chiefs  and  deputy  chiefs  to  fires.  For  the 
chief  of  department  a  powerful  and  reliable  auto- 
mobile should  be  provided,  for  his  duties  ordinarily 
take  him  over  a  wide  range  of  territory  and  he 


178          FIRE    PREVENTION 

should  have  a  sense  of  entire  security  that  he  can 
reach  the  scene  of  action  without  appreciable  risk  of 
delay,  and  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  All  the 
wagons  of  chiefs,  whatever  their  motive  power  or 
kind,  should  be  conspicuously  painted  and  equipped, 
like  the  other  pieces  of  department  apparatus,  with 
either  bells  or  siren  whistles,  or  both.  Naturally 
they  should  have  the  right  of  way  at  all  times  and 
over  all  classes  of  vehicles.  A  city  is  on  the  wrong 
road  to  reduce  its  fire  waste  unless  it  makes  sure  that 
nothing  will  prevent  its  firemen  from  reaching  the 
scene  of  the  fire  at  the  first  possible  moment.  The 
first  few  minutes  mark  the  turning  point  of  a  fire 
time  without  number;  they  are  the  vital  minutes. 

Fuel  and  repair  wagons  may  be  of  any  desired 
type  to  fulfil  their  purposes,  but  they  should  be 
strongly  built  and  well  taken  care  of  just  as  should  all 
the  other  weapons  of  the  department.  To  draw  the 
analogy  of  the  army  once  more;  they  form,  practi- 
cally speaking,  the  fire  department's  commissariat 
train.  To  any  person  who  has  been  at  a  really  big 
fire  where  the  engines  were  forced  to  pump  for 
hours  at  a  time,  the  sound  of  their  impatient  whistles, 
blowing  for  coal,  is  familiar,  and,  although  they  or 
their  tenders  should  carry  a  supply  of  extra  and 
spare  parts,  it  is  well  to  have  a  still  further  reserve 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     179 

of  such  parts  on  hand  at  the  time  of  any  large  blaze. 

The  tools  used  in  a  large  fire  department  are 
many,  but  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  name  those 
which  are  most  necessary  and  with  which  a  big  city 
department  may  do  its  work  efficiently.  The  num- 
ber of  tools  of  each  variety  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  department.  I  will  therefore  make 
no  attempt  to  prescribe  quantity,  but  merely  enu- 
merate the  different  classes.  Engine  companies 
should  be  provided  with: 

Four  and  one-half  inch  suctions,  10  feet  6  inches 
long  and  4  feet  long.  Swivels  for  4^-inch  suctions 
and  reducing  suction  swivels,  4^/2  by  2^2  inches. 
Portable  hydrant  nipples,  hydrant  connections,  fresh 
water  thaw  hose,  hydrant  pumps,  play  pipes,  suctions, 
baskets  and  ropes,  oil  cans,  chisels,  chipping  ham- 
mers, combination  and  monkey  wrenches,  stillson 
wrenches  and  socket  wrenches,  double-end  hydrant 
wrenches,  high  pressure  hydrant  wrenches,  hub  caps, 
main  pumping-rod  stuffing  boxes,  piston-rod  stuffing 
boxes  and  alligator  wrenches,  sets  of  packing  tools, 
drivers'  safety  straps,  seat  cushions,  shovels,  slice 
bars,  pokers  and  starting  bars. 

For  truck  or  hook  and  ladder  companies,  the  fol- 
lowing tools  should  be  provided: 

Axes,  ladder  straps,  life  belts,  large  and  small 


i8o          FIRE   PREVENTION 

mauls,  signal  flags,  cotton  hooks,  shovels,  wire  cut- 
ters, 6  feet,  10  feet,  15  feet,  20  feet  and  25  feet, 
hooks,  door  forcers,  rams,  gas  wrenches,  guns  (for 
shooting  lines  of  rope) ,  life  nets,  body  bags,  medical 
bags,  smoke  helmets  or  masks,  picks,  extinguishers, 
megaphones  and  claw  tools. 

In  addition,  both  engine  and  truck  companies 
should  have  a  supply  of  electrical  hand  lanterns, 
which  greatly  excel  in  usefulness  the  old  form  of 
oil  lantern;  and  electrical  searchlights,  which  can  be 
put  to  excellent  use  in  cellar  fires  or  indeed  in  any 
parts  of  buildings  where  the  men  are  at  a  disadvan- 
tage because  of  intense  darkness.  These  lights  are 
frequently  of  great  help  in  the  common  sub-cellar 
fires  which  modern  methods  of  deep,  as  well  as  high, 
construction  make  particularly  difficult  to  fight  with 
success. 

An  important  provision  for  the  uniformed  fire  de- 
partment, is  the  proper  regulation  of  uniforms. 
Pride  in  the  uniform  which  they  are  wearing  should 
be  instilled  into  the  men  and  will  tend  to  foster  that 
esprit  de  corps  of  which  I  have  already  spoken. 
The  arrangement  of  uniforms  for  the  New  York  de- 
partment is  an  excellent  one  and  could  well  be  fol- 
lowed in  other  large  cities,  the  country  over.  They 
may  be  described  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     181 

For  all  officers  and  men  of  the  department,  fire 
caps  or  helmets  of  conical  shape,  sloping  more  or 
less  sharply  toward  the  back  and  made  of  strong 
leather,  differing  according  to  rank,  in  colour  and  let- 
tering. Uniform  caps,  of  United  States  Navy  pat- 
tern, made  of  dark  blue  cloth,  of  pure  indigo  dye, 
with  a  patent  leather,  round-pointed  visor  and  leather 
chin  strap,  differing,  in  the  matter  of  buttons  and  in- 
signia only,  for  the  various  ranks. 

Slight  variations  in  both  winter  and  summer  head- 
gear for  the  officers  and  men  attached  to  fire-boats, 
to  follow  a  more  nautical  design. 

Double-breasted,  close-fitting  sack  coats,  of  dark 
blue  cloth  for  all  officers.  Cloth  to  weigh  not  less 
than  twenty-four  ounces  to  the  yard  and  coat  to  be  of 
length  halfway  between  the  hip  joint  and  the  bend 
of  knee,  the  coats  to  be  lined  with  red  cloth  or  flan- 
nel and  have  the  insignia  of  rank  on  the  ends  of  the 
collar  on  each  side.  For  engineers  of  steamers  and 
firemen,  coats  of  the  same  general  pattern  save  that 
they  are  single-breasted.  For  summer  wear,  coats 
of  the  same  character  as  the  winter  coats  for  both 
officers  and  men,  save  that  they  are  unlined  and  of 
lighter  weight — the  cloth  to  weigh  not  less  than 
fourteen  ounces  to  the  yard. 

Overcoats  to  be  double-breasted,  knee  length  and 


i82          FIRE    PREVENTION 

of  the  best  dark  blue  cloth,  lined  with  red  cloth  or 
flannel  and  sleeves  lined  with  linen;  of  the  same  de- 
sign for  both  officers  and  men.  Officers  and  men  at- 
tached to  fire-boats  to  wear  a  slightly  shorter  coat 
of  slightly  different  design  with  a  wider  collar. 

Waistcoats  to  be  the  same  In  material  as  coats 
and  to  be  single-breasted  and  without  collar.  Trou- 
sers to  be  of  the  same  material,  snug  at  the  waist, 
but  loose  elsewhere  to  permit  freedom  of  movement. 
Both  waistcoats  and  trousers  may  be  of  lighter 
weight  material  for  summer  wear.  Shirts,  for  offi- 
cers, to  be  of  white  linen  or  muslin  with  a  standing 
collar,  save  that  officers  may  wear  dark  grey  flannel 
shirts  between  the  hours  of  6  P.  M.  and  8  A.  M. 
For  all  the  other  members  of  the  department  shirts 
to  be  of  dark  blue  flannel,  double-breasted  with  a 
wide  rolling  collar. 

Cravats  to  be  of  black  silk  and  gloves  to  be  of 
white  Berlin  or  Lisle  thread,  for  use  on  formal  oc- 
casions. In  addition  to  the  parts  of  the  uniform 
described  above,  all  officers  and  men  have  double- 
breasted  black  rubber  coats  to  extend  below  the  knee, 
heavy  rubber  boots,  provided  with  inside  soles  of 
leather,  and  black  rubber  covers  for  uniform  caps  to 
protect  the  cloth  portion. 

It  is  the  duty  of  deputy  chiefs  in  New  York  to 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     183 

inspect  and  pass  upon  all  portions  of  uniforms,  both 
as  to  their  uniformity  of  pattern  and  their  condition. 
All  uniforms  must  come  up  to  their  requirements, 
prescribed  by  standard,  and  must  be  bought  by  the 
members  of  the  department  themselves,  save  that  the 
buttons,  cap  and  coat  badges,  insignia  of  rank,  hat 
numbers  and  belts  are  furnished  by  the  department. 
The  insignia  of  rank  used  in  this  department  are 
as  follows: 

For  chief  of  department,  five  trumpets  crossed 
with  bells  outward,  each  trumpet  to  be  about  one  and 
five-sixteenths  inches  long,  the  whole  to  form  a  de- 
sign one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  and  made 
of  metal.  For  deputy  chiefs,  the  same,  save  with 
three  trumpets  crossed  with  bells  downward.  For 
chiefs  of  battalion,  the  same,  save  with  two  trum- 
pets. For  foremen  of  engine  companies,  two  trum- 
pets parallel  with  bells  downward,  and  the  number 
of  the  company  between.  For  foremen  of  com- 
panies attached  to  fire-boats,  the  same  with  an 
anchor  between  trumpets  and  the  company  number 
above,  the  whole  to  be  in  gold  bullion  on  dark  blue 
cloth,  surrounded  with  a  bullion  cord.  For  assist- 
ant foremen  of  engine  companies,  the  same  as  fore- 
men, save  with  one  trumpet  placed  horizontally,  and 
for  assistant  foremen  of  fire  boat  companies  the 


i84          FIRE    PREVENTION 

same  as  for  foremen  of  fire  boat  companies,  save 
with  one  trumpet  placed  horizontally  with  an  anchor 
under  it.  For  foremen  of  hook  and  ladder  com- 
panies, two  upright  axes  with  their  blades  facing 
each  other  with  the  company  number  between.  For 
assistant  foremen  of  hook  and  ladder  companies, 
one  axe  placed  horizontally  with  number  above. 

Proper  leaves  of  absence  should  be  arranged  in 
the  department,  so  that  each  man  may  have  as  much 
time  as  is  consistent  with  the  good  of  the  service  in 
which  to  be  with  his  family  or  at  home.  The  regu- 
lar leaves  in  the  New  York  department  are  as  fol- 
lows: For  chief  officers  and  all  other  members  of 
the  department,  twenty-four  hours  every  fifth  day; 
leaves  to  begin  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning.  In 
addition  vacation  leaves  of  thirty  days  are  granted 
for  chief  officers,  twenty-one  days  for  foremen  and 
assistant  foremen  and  fourteen  days  for  engineers 
of  steamers  and  firemen.  Leaves  for  meals  are 
granted  on  a  basis  of  one  and  three-quarter  hours 
for  each  meal  three  times  a  day,  or  two  hours  for 
each  meal  twice  a  day  or  three  hours  for  a  meal 
once  a  day.  Provision  is  also  made  for  sick  leaves, 
special  leaves  for  good  cause  and  so  forth.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  so  arrange  the  leaves  that  each 
company  will  have  at  all  times  sufficient  officers  and 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     185 

men  to  properly  man  and  handle  the  apparatus  in 
case  of  a  call  to  fire.  For  the  carrying  out  of  this 
vital  provision  the  officers  of  companies  should  be 
held  strictly  accountable. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  conduct  of  men  and  com- 
panies when  responding  to  fires  and  a  few  general 
principles  which  apply  to  fire-fighting  may  not  be  in- 
appropriate here.  I  am  aware  that  specific  rules  for 
fire-fighting  cannot  be  laid  down  to  cover  particular 
cases,  because  every  blaze  that  amounts  to  anything, 
presents  a  new  tactical  problem  to  the  commander 
and  requires  a  different  plan  of  campaign,  but  there 
are,  nevertheless,  certain  broad  principles  which  it  is 
the  duty  of  all  firemen  to  know  and  remember,  and 
it  is  of  these  that  I  intend  to  speak.  First,  as  to  the 
manner  of  proceeding  to  a  fire  on  the  receipt  of 
alarm. 

Drivers  of  all  pieces  of  apparatus  should  be  famil- 
iar at  all  times  with  the  condition  of  the  streets  in  the 
district  in  which  they  respond  on  first  alarms,  and 
if  possible,  alarms  of  greater  magnitude.  To  aid 
them  in  this  knowledge  it  is  a  wise  custom  to  post  on 
the  slate  or  blackboard  at  the  watch  desk  of  each 
company  house,  all  notices  of  streets  under  repair, 
excavations,  or  special  danger  points  that  may  be 
present  in  the  streets  from  time  to  time.  Drivers 


186          FIRE    PREVENTION 

should  take  the  route  which  is  at  the  same  time  the 
quickest  and  presents  the  least  likelihood  of  wear 
and  tear  on  the  horses  or  apparatus.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  always  the  shortest  route. 

The  apparatus  should  be  driven  with  all  possible 
speed  consistent  with  safety  and  drivers  should  re- 
member that  they  have  the  right  of  way,  and  be  care- 
ful to  report  all  cases  of  interference  by  vehicles  and 
other  conveyances  in  the  streets.  They  should  al- 
ways have  their  teams  under  complete  control,  and 
bring  them  to  a  full  stop  rather  than  run  the  risk  of 
collision.  They  should  not  be  permitted  to  race  with 
other  apparatus  when  going  to  a  fire,  but  should  pro- 
ceed in  single  file  unless  the  apparatus  ahead  is  in 
some  way  disabled.  At  particularly  dangerous 
crossings  of  railroad  tracks  or  congested  arteries  of 
traffic,  one  or  more  men  should  descend  from  the  en- 
gine, truck  or  tower  and  go  ahead  to  give  warning  of 
its  approach  and  notify  the  driver  that  all  is  clear. 
By  this  precaution  dangerous  or  delaying  accidents 
may  frequently  be  avoided. 

On  arrival  at  a  fire  the  driver  of  an  engine  should 
stop  at  the  hydrant  on  the  side  of  the  fire  from  which 
he  is  approaching  if  possible,  unless  greater  speed 
may  be  made  by  passing  the  fire  and  taking  up  a 
position  at  the  opposite  side.  When  the  tender 


Courtesy  of  C.  G,  Riehl 

Responding  to  an  Alarm 
The  fire  horse  soon  learns  to  love  the  dash  through  the  streets. 


Combination  Motor  Chemical  and  Hose  Wagon 
One  of  the  types  of  apparatus  coming  into  widespread  use 
in  small  communities. 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     187 

draws  near  the  engine,  one  man,  designated  by  the 
assistant  foreman,  who  rides  on  the  tender,  should 
unfasten  the  hose  and,  when  at  the  engine,  take  a 
turn  around  the  outside  of  the  hind  wheel,  attaching 
the  hose  to  the  discharge  gate  of  the  engine  when  the 
hose  is  stretched.  Connection  should  immediately 
be  made  to  a  hydrant  unless  it  appears  that  there  will 
be  no  chance  of  need  for  the  company's  service, 
and  then,  when  the  hose  is  stretched,  it  should  be 
laid  on  the  side  of  the  street  on  which  the  engine  is, 
rather  than  across  the  street,  so  that  other  com- 
panies coming  up  or  changing  their  positions  will  not 
run  over  the  hose  unnecessarily.  Hose  should  be 
allowed  to  run  off  the  tender  rather  than  be  pulled 
off  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  having  needless 
hose  lying  in  the  street.  Enough  hose  should  be 
run  off  to  reach  comfortably  to  the  scene  of  the  fire. 
Tenders  should  be  quickly  removed  from  in  front  of 
burning  buildings,  and  if  necessary  the  horses  of  en- 
gines may  be  unhitched  and  moved  out  of  range  of 
the  heat  and  smoke.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  driver 
of  the  horses  to  attend  to  his  team  at  all  times  while 
at  a  fire  and  to  protect  them  from  injury. 

"  Stretch  in  "  is  the  proper  order  to  instruct  men  to 
lay  a  line  of  hose  and  take  it  to  the  scene  of  the  fire. 
When  both  three-inch  and  two-and-a-half-inch  hose 


i88          FIRE   PREVENTION 

are  in  use,  companies  responding  on  second  or 
greater  alarms  should  stretch  to  the  building  with 
the  larger  size  and  extend  the  hose  lines  into  the 
buildings,  if  required,  with  the  smaller  size.  The 
process  in  taking  up  hose  when  the  fire  is  out  and  the 
companies  are  to  return  to  quarters  is  the  exact  con- 
verse in  rotation  of  that  which  has  been  described. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  straighten  out  all  kinks  in 
hose  as  soon  as  it  has  been  stretched  and  the  water 
started.  By  this  precaution  much  hose  can  be  saved 
and  valuable  time  and  power  of  the  stream  can  also 
be  conserved.  Carelessness  in  laying  lines  is  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  bursting  hose,  which,  in  turn,  is  to  be 
avoided  in  every  possible  case,  as  it  always  means  de- 
lay and  increased  labour.  Defective  or  cheap  hose 
is  at  fault  in  many  instances,  but  in  not  a  few  the 
break  is  the  fault  of  the  men  rather  than  of  the  hose. 
The  duties  of  truck  companies  on  arrival  at  fires, 
fall  under  two  distinct  heads.  The  first  concerns  the 
safety  of  life,  and  consists  in  elevating  their  exten- 
sion or  ordinary  ladders,  using  their  scaling  ladders 
or  using  the  natural  projections  or  escapes  of  the 
building  to  effect  rescues.  This  is,  of  course,  a 
primary  duty  of  all  firemen  if  persons  are  in  im- 
minent danger,  but  it  is  especially  the  duty  of  mem- 
bers of  truck  companies,  and  engine  companies  can 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     189 

usually  turn  their  attention  with  more  profit,  if  the 
danger  be  not  too  imminent,  to  getting  water  on  the 
blaze  and  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  cause  of  the 
danger. 

The  second  duty  of  truck  companies  is  to  prepare 
a  way  of  entrance  for  engine  companies  into  build- 
ings or  to  ventilate  buildings  so  that  the  men  of  the 
engine  companies  stretching  the  lines  of  hose  may 
enter  more  easily  and  receive  less  punishment  from 
heat  and  smoke  while  at  their  work.  The  methods 
of  ventilation  are  numerous,  but  as  a  rule  the  best 
practice  is  to  open  all  roof  apertures,  such  as  scuttles 
and  skylights,  or  even  to  chop  a  hole  in  the  roof  if 
necessary,  and  to  open  all  windows  from  the  top  or 
from  the  top  and  bottom  both.  The  men  should  be 
instructed  to  cause  no  needless  injury  to  property 
and  not  to  break  open  doors  and  windows,  scuttles  or 
skylights  which  can  be  opened  without  breaking. 
There  is  no  necessity  of  making  a  fire  a  scene  of 
promiscuous  chopping  and  hacking,  hewing  and 
smashing,  as  is  unfortunately  so  frequently  done, 
for  most  means  of  entrance  into  a  building  as  well 
as  means  of  ventilation  will  yield  to  gentler  treat- 
ment without  loss  of  time. 

Thus  it  will  be  found  that  doors  can  be  pried  off 
their  hinges  by  the  judicious  use  of  an  axe  or  two 


190          FIRE    PREVENTION 

or  their  locks  may  be  forced  without  smashing  in 
nearly  all  cases.  Windows  yield  to  careful  forcing 
even  more  readily  and,  in  fact,  almost  any  kind  of  a 
fastened  aperture  can  be  forced  open  with  an  axe 
blade  used  as  a  wedge  and  supplemented  by  the  use 
of  a  maul  to  drive  it  home.  In  this  matter  the  fire- 
man should  remember  that  his  duty  is  to  save,  not  to 
destroy. 

Ventilation  of  cellar  and  sub-cellar  fires  should 
be  carried  on  as  far  as  possible  through  the  direct 
openings  to  the  street,  rather  than  indirectly  in  a  way 
to  carry  the  fumes  or  smoke  up  through  the  entire 
building.  Often  it  is  advisable  to  remove  or  break 
open  the  deadlights  in  the  sidewalks  to  effect  proper 
ventilation  in  cases  of  fire  of  this  character.  In 
this  way  the  smoke  or  gases  can  find  ready  escape  to 
the  open  air.  In  directing  the  ventilation  of  build- 
ings, the  officer  in  command  should  take  careful  note 
of  the  direction  of  the  wind  and  the  condition  of  the 
atmosphere,  as  both  of  these  considerations  have  a 
direct  bearing  and  an  important  one  on  this  subject. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  occasions 
when  ventilation,  with  consequent  draughts,  is  some- 
thing to  be  avoided,  but  this  applies  usually  to  cases 
in  which  water  is  not  immediately  available.  Thor- 
ough and  general  ventilation  is  nearly  always  to  be 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     191 

desired,  when  the  men  can  get  directly  at  the  fire 
with  lines  of  hose. 

As  a  general  principle,  fire  should  be  fought  from 
below  rather  than  from  above.  Hose  should  be 
taken  up  stairs,  and  in  this  connection,  I  may  add 
that  it  is  usually  better  to  take  the  time  and  trouble 
to  stretch  a  lead  of  hose  around  a  flight  of  stairs 
itself  rather  than  to  draw  it  up  through  a  stairway 
well.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  that  firemen 
do  not  work  at  cross  purposes  when  fighting  the 
flames  up  through  a  building;  that  is  to  say,  that  men 
directing  streams  from  above  do  not  defeat  the 
efforts  of  those  working  up  from  below,  by  forcing 
the  fire  down  upon  them  or  creating  a  back  draught 
of  any  sort.  This  is  not  infrequently  done  through 
carelessness,  and  I  have  seen  men  lost  from  back 
draught  too  often  to  scorn  its  dangers. 

Firemen  should,  of  course,  have  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  how  to  handle  all  the  types  of  nozzles  in  use 
in  the  department  and  how  to  start  water  from  them 
or  shut  it  off.  They  should  never  forget  that  a  lone 
man  cannot  expect  to  handle  a  standard  size  nozzle 
when  there  is  pressure  in  the  hose,  and  also  that  if, 
through  accident  or  otherwise,  they  are  forced  to  at- 
tempt this  feat,  the  best  possible  protection  is  se- 
cured by  keeping  tight  hold  of  the  nozzle,  by  press- 


192          FIRE    PREVENTION 

ing  it  up  against  the  wall  with  the  body,  if  necessary, 
or  by  throwing  the  whole  weight  upon  it  on  the  floor 
until  help  arrives.  A  loose  nozzle  is  dangerous  to 
a  degree  and  may  easily  cause  the  death  of  a  man 
when  it  begins  to  twist  or  beat  about.  The  great 
power  of  the  streams  which  are  forced  through  fire 
hose  is  not  generally  realised.  With  a  two-and-one- 
half  inch  stream  from  an  ordinary  steamer,  plank- 
ing can  be  ripped  off  readily,  doors  battered  in  and 
even  light  brick  work  crumbled,  while  with  a  high 
pressure  stream  and  three-inch  hose,  such  as  is  used 
in  New  York,  any  ordinary  brick  wall  could  be  de- 
molished by  a  concentrated  attack.  When  this  is 
realised  it  is  not  hard  to  understand  why  loose  noz- 
zles should  be  treated  with  respectful  caution. 

All  possible  use  should  be  made  of  standpipes 
and  auxiliary  fire-fighting  appliances  within  a  build- 
ing, and  to  this  end  the  fireman  should  be  thoroughly 
familiar  with  those  which  are  to  be  found  in  any 
building  which  he  is  likely  to  visit  in  the  line  of  his 
duty.  The  connections  with  sprinkler  systems 
within  the  building  often  prove  of  great  value  also 
and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  their  help  when- 
ever the  circumstances  will  permit.  In  using  all 
these  additional  helps  against  the  flames,  care  should 
be  taken  to  make  no  mistake  and  thus  bring  about 


A  Hot  Corner 

Too  close  to  the  blaze  to  leave  the  horses, 
walls  around  engine. 


Note  debris  of 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     193 

great  water  damage  to  the  building.  At  the  connec- 
tions on  the  street  level  where  the  department  ap- 
paratus may  be  attached,  these  devices  are  usually 
plainly  marked  with  names  to  show  their  exact  char- 
acter and  purpose.  This  should  always  be  the  case, 
and  should  be  made  one  of  the  requirements  or  speci- 
fications when  these  devices  are  installed.  Much  of 
their  usefulness  is  destroyed  if  time  must  be  wasted 
in  ascertaining  their  character  and  use  before  turn- 
ing on  water.  In  most  cases  it  is  well,  as  an  extra 
precaution,  to  have  men  see  that  the  valves  on  each 
floor  of  a  building  are  closed  before  water  is  turned 
on,  so  that  the  building  or  a  part  of  it  will  not  be 
flooded  from  a  valve  carelessly  left  open  by  the 
tenant  on  some  floor  in  which  there  is  no  fire. 

This  manner  of  unnecessary  water  damage  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  stretching  roof  lines 
also.  It  is  always  best,  unless  some  special  exigency 
of  the  situation  forbids,  to  stretch  such  lines  on  the 
outside  of  buildings,  up  the  outer  walls  that  is;  for 
by  this  method  flooding  of  the  interior  of  the  struc- 
ture will  be  avoided  in  case  there  should  be  any 
break  in  the  line  or  at  the  connections.  Usually 
greater  speed  may  be  made  in  this  way  also,  unless 
the  lines  are  to  be  stretched  from  standpipes,  when, 
of  course,  part  of  their  length,  at  least,  must  of 


i94          FIRE    PREVENTION 

necessity  be  within  the  building.  When  hose  does 
burst  in  a  building  or  in  the  street,  a  hose  jacket 
should  be  placed  over  the  rupture  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible, and  if  this  does  not  prove  sufficient,  a  new 
length  should  be  substituted  after  water  has  been 
shut  off.  The  best  procedure  when  this  is  to  be 
done,  if  the  break  is  near  the  roof,  is  to  put  in  the 
new  length  as  close  as  possible  to  the  building  and 
then  pull  up  the  hose  to  the  roof  or  upper  story, 
taking  out  the  broken  length.  This  is,  of  course, 
unnecessary  when  the  broken  length  can  be  dispensed 
with  entirely.  In  this  case  it  can  simply  be  taken  out 
and  the  hose  recoupled.  When  working  hose  lines 
on  roofs  firemen  should  have  with  them  roof  ropes, 
axes  and  hose  rollers;  the  hose  rollers  to  facilitate 
the  sliding  of  hose  over  cornices,  roof  edges,  etc., 
and  the  ropes  to  assist  in  hauling  up  the  lines  of  hose, 
or  to  form  means  of  escape  if  the  company  be  cut 
off  on  the  roof. 

Carrying  lines  up  on  roofs  is  often  precarious 
business,  though  it  is  also,  in  many  cases,  the  best 
way  to  get  at  the  fire  and  therefore  must  be  done. 
If  the  fire  is  of  any  magnitude,  or  if  it  affects  the 
next  story  below  the  roof,  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  test  the  security  of  the  roof  before  the  men  are 
allowed  to  advance  upon  it.  Many  a  fireman  has 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     195 

plunged  through  a  roof  to  injury  or  death  from  want 
of  precaution  in  this  matter.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  even  the  most  careful  testing  will  not 
always  avail,  and  I  have  myself  had  a  number  of 
narrow  escapes  on  roofs  which  suddenly  and  unex- 
pectedly gave  way.  In  the  car  barn  fire  on  October 
9th,  1903,  at  Avenue  B  and  I4th  Street,  the  danger 
of  falling  roofs  was  exemplified,  though  not  the  dan- 
ger to  the  men  on  top,  but  to  the  men  below  in  that 
instance.  As  soon  as  I  arrived  at  the  scene  I  saw 
that  the  roof  was  in  perilous  condition.  Three 
companies  were  working  under  it  within  the  building. 
I  rushed  to  them  and  ordered  them  out  as  fast  as 
they  could  go,  and  I  was  just  in  time,  for  they  had 
barely  reached  the  street  when  the  roof  went  in  with 
a  roar.  It  was  a  close  call.  However,  the  old  say- 
ing, "  A  miss  is  as  good  as  a  mile,"  held  true. 

When  lines  of  hose  are  stretched  up  ladders  on 
the  outside  of  buildings  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  ladders  are  secured  at  the  top,  for  strong  pres- 
sure in  the  lines  will  sometimes  cause  the  ladder  to 
rise  outward  and  even  fall.  Such  lines  should  never 
be  put  in  a  window  through  the  rungs  of  a  ladder, 
but  either  over  the  top  or  at  one  side,  as,  in  this  way, 
should  it  be  necessary  or  advisable  to  move  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ladder  it  can  be  accomplished  without 


196          FIRE   PREVENTION 

backing  out  the  line  of  hose.  It  is  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  men  handling  a  ladder  line  to  fasten  it  to 
the  ladder  by  means  of  hose  straps  or  pieces  of  rope 
which  should  be  carried  for  this  purpose.  In  this 
way  the  weight  of  the  hose  may  be  taken  in  part 
from  the  men  and  they  will  be  left  more  freedom 
to  direct  the  stream  or  render  assistance  to  the  men 
inside  the  building.  Belts,  with  snap  hooks,  are 
also  part  of  the  equipment  of  ladder  men  to  enable 
them  to  fasten  themselves  to  the  rungs  and  thus  be 
able  to  move  with  greater  freedom  when  making 
rescues  or  handling  hose. 

Orders  to  "  pick  up  "  or  "  back  out  "  with  a  line  of 
hose  should  be  obeyed  with  the  greatest  promptness, 
for  the  commander  or  officers  outside  of  buildings 
are  frequently  in  a  position  to  see  danger  long  before 
the  men  within.  Backing  out  is  a  process  which  is 
just  what  its  name  implies.  If  it  is  to  be  performed 
from  an  upper  story  the  hose  should  be  disconnected, 
after  the  water  has  been  shut  off,  at  the  lowest  con- 
nection outside  the  building,  so  that  the  water  re- 
maining in  the  hose  may  drain  out  into  the  street  as 
the  line  comes  down.  The  line  should  then  be 
backed  out  carefully,  the  nozzle  or  play  pipe  last. 

The  sizes  of  nozzles  or  pipes  should  be  regulated 
according  to  the  size  of  hose,  the  number  of  lengths 


DEPARTMENT   OF  A    CITY     197 

of  hose  in  use  and  the  pressure  employed,  and  not  by 
any  arbitary  rules  of  hydraulics.  The  most  effec- 
tive stream  in  the  circumstances  is  the  desirable 
thing,  and  whatever  size  will  insure  this  is  the  proper 
one  to  use.  This  is  a  matter  which  must  be  learned 
by  experience  and  cannot  be  prescribed  beforehand. 
It  is  frequently  advisable  to  use  so-called  Siamese 
connections,  that  is  two-way  or  four-way  connections 
by  which  one  or  more  lines  can  be  led  from  a  single 
line,  or  the  power  of  two  or  more  lines  concentrated 
into  one.  These  connections  should,  in  practically 
every  case,  be  made  as  close  to  the  fire  as  possible. 
By  relaying  power  from  one  engine  to  another 
with  various  sizes  of  hose,  water  can  be  obtained 
from  considerable  distances  when  required,  or  can 
be  driven  up  considerable  elevations.  Whenever 
this  practice  is  followed  the  largest  hose  size  in  use 
should  be  that  nearest  the  source  of  water  supply. 
By  the  use  of  reducers  the  hose  size  can  be  dimin- 
ished as  the  fire  is  approached. 

There  are  not  a  few  classes  of  fires  in  which  water 
should  be  used  sparingly,  as  it  either  creates  a  dan- 
gerous condition  or  merely  serves  to  spread  the 
flames.  Under  this  head  fall  fires  among  chemicals, 
many  acids  and  all  oils  and  greases.  Water  thrown 
on  calcium  carbide  will  form  a  dangerous  and  explo- 


198          FIRE   PREVENTION 

sive  gas,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  many  sub- 
stances usually  found  in  drug  stores,  drug  supply 
houses  or  the  holds  of  ships.  In  these  cases  choking 
with  sand  or  earth,  or  if  the  blaze  is  incipient,  wet 
blankets  or  cloths,  is  usually  the  most  effective 
method  of  extinguishment.  Water  should  not  be 
used  on  electric  fires,  switchboards  and  the  like,  as  it 
not  only  forms  a  conductor  which  may  easily  cause 
shock  to  the  firemen,  but  it  also  is  especially  destruc- 
tive to  electric  appliances,  and  one  stream  may  bring 
about  a  loss  of  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty. Sand  and  earth  are  to  be  recommended  for 
blazes  of  this  sort,  or  the  shutting  off  of  current. 

In  fires  giving  off  dangerous  fumes,  such  as  those 
from  ammonia  or  similar  chemicals,  special  helmets 
should  be  worn.  Ammonia,  in  the  form  used  to 
make  artificial  ice,  will  not  burn  and  is  itself  a  means 
of  extinguishing  flames. 

Firemen  should  remember  that  the  streams  of 
water  they  use  to  put  out  fires  are  dangerous  things 
in  some  circumstances.  The  effect  of  a  stream  of 
water  on  a  cast  iron  or  steel  support  or  beam  which 
is  exposed  or  hot,  is  disastrous,  for  instance.  Steel 
columns  will  buckle  and  warp  in  conditions  of  this 
kind,  and  by  their  distortion  frequently  jeopardise 
the  entire  structure,  imperilling  the  lives  of  all  who 


DEPARTMENT   OF   A    CITY     199 

are  within  the  building.  The  accompanying  illustra- 
tion from  the  Equitable  fire  shows  the  effect  of  water 
on  hot  steel  supports. 

Chimney  fires,  of  which  there  are  hundreds  every 
year  in  every  large  city,  require  special  methods  of 
treatment.  Water  should  not  be  used  in  connection 
with  fires  of  this  nature,  as  it  may  cause  damage  by 
cracking  the  flue  in  addition  to  useless  flooding. 
The  first  step  is  to  stop  up  all  openings  of  the  flue 
below  the  roof,  in  itself  a  check  to  the  progress  of 
the  blaze,  by  shutting  off  the  draught.  A  pail  of 
salt,  or  sand,  or  some  chemical  powder  made  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda  or  a  like  substance  should  then 
be  dumped  down  the  chimney  from  the  roof.  This 
will  smother  the  flames  by  chemical  action  or  carry 
down  the  burning  soot  to  the  bottom  of  the  flue 
where  it  can  readily  be  reached  and'  extinguished. 
Chimney  fires  are  not  to  be  disregarded  as  being  un- 
important, for  the  frequency  of  defective  flues 
makes  them  a  source  of  danger  to  the  structures  in 
which  they  occur.  For  oil  fires  the  spreading  of 
sand  or  other  smothering  material  is  the  best  mode 
of  extinguishment.  Some  large  oil  plants  near 
New  York  have  equipped  their  premises  with  special 
hose  and  nozzles  for  blowing  sand  a  considerable 
distance  and  spreading  it  over  the  burning  fluid,  and 


200          FIRE   PREVENTION 

firemen  should  bear  in  mind  the  advantages  of  the 
smothering  method  when  they  are  confronted  with 
fires  of  this  character.  Water  is  usually  worse  than 
useless  save  to  protect  surrounding  property. 

One  measure  of  self-protection  from  heat  and 
dangerous  flumes,  should  not  be  overlooked.  I  re- 
fer to  the  use  of  a  wall  of  water.  This  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  number  of  streams  close  together  when 
the  fire  is  of  magnitude,  or  by  means  of  special 
spraying  nozzles  to  diffuse  the  stream  into  a  heavy 
mist  or  rain.  Such  a  water  wall  creates  a  protected 
zone  back  of  it  and  actually  supplies  fresh  air  to 
those  fighting  the  blaze  in  its  wake.  It  has  fre- 
quently proved  its  usefulness. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    NEW   YORK   FIRE   DE- 
PARTMENT AND  SOME   OF  ITS   DEFECTS 

NEW  YORK  has  spent  a  good  many  years  and  a  great 
many  dollars  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  effective  fire 
department  of  the  present  day.  Its  beginnings 
were  small  and  primitive  things,  and  there  are  still 
alive  many  firemen  who  remember  the  old  hand  en- 
gines, pumped  and  drawn  by  hand,  and  the  early 
steamers,  so  cumbersome  and  unwieldy  that  half 
a  dozen  horses  were  required  to  draw  them  at  a 
pace  that  would  seem  ludicrous  to-day.  The  won- 
der of  it  was  that  so  much  excellent  service  could 
have  been  done  by  the  volunteers  who  manned  the 
companies  of  half  a  century  or  more  ago,  for  they 
were  handicapped  not  only  by  their  imperfect  appa- 
ratus, but  also  by  the  quick-burning  construction  of 
most  of  the  city.  However,  they  did  perform  excel- 
lent service  in  many  instances  without  compensation 
and  deserve  a  respectful  memory.  Volunteers,  the 

201 


202          FIRE   PREVENTION 

country  over  have  performed  and  are  still  perform- 
ing service  of  the  same  high  quality. 

It  would  be  aside  from  the  purpose  of  this  volume 
to  enter  into  any  lengthy  discussion  of  the  gradual 
upbuilding  of  the  department  here  in  New  York,  as 
I  am  not  so  much  concerned  with  what  lies  in  the 
past,  except  in  so  far  as  the  mistakes  of  the  past  may 
prove  profitable  warnings,  as  with  the  possibilities 
of  progress  for  the  future.  Nor  do  I  desire  to  treat 
too  much  at  length  of  New  York  City,  save  as  it  may 
be  used  as  an  example  either  for  emulation  or  avoid- 
ance for  the  rest  of  the  country  in  the  matter  of  its 
combat  with  the  fire  hazard.  It  is,  however,  of  in- 
terest to  all  who  have  concern  with  fire-fighting  to 
know  something  of  the  methods  and  implements 
which  were  employed  by  former  generations  of  fire- 
men. The  following  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  New  York  Fire  Department,  by  C.  C. 
Whinery  in  the  London  Times : 

77  The  fire  department  of  New  York  City  is  the 
result  of  gradual  development.  The  first  record 
of  municipal  action  in  regard  to  fire  prevention 
dates  from  1659,  when  250  leather  buckets  and  a 
supply  of  fire  ladders  and  hooks  were  purchased 
and  a  tax  of  one  guilder  for  fire  apparatus  was  im- 
posed on  every  chimney;  in  1676  fire  wells  were  or- 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    203 

dered  dug;  in  1686  every  dwelling  house  with  two 
chimneys  was  required  to  provide  one  bucket  (more 
than  two  hearths,  two  buckets)  and  bakers  and 
brewers  had  to  provide  three  and  six  buckets  respec- 
tively; in  1689  *  brent-masters '  or  fire-marshals 
were  appointed;  in  1695  every  dwelling  house  had 
to  provide  one  fire  bucket  at  least;  in  1730  two 
Richard  Newsham  hand  engines  were  ordered  from 
England  and  soon  afterwards  a  superintendent  of 
fire  engines  was  appointed  on  a  small  salary;  in  1736 
an  engine  house  was  built  near  the  watch  house  in 
Broad  Street  and  an  act  of  the  State  Legislature  au- 
thorised the  appointment  of  twenty-four  firemen  ex- 
empt from  constable  or  militia  duty. 

"  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  volunteer  fire 
companies  increased  rapidly  in  numbers  and  impor- 
tance, especially  political;  and  success  in  a  fire  com- 
pany was  a  sure  path  to  success  in  politics,  the  best 
known  case  being  that  of  Richard  Croker,  a  member 
of  *  Americus  6,'  commonly  called  '  Big  Six,'  of 
which  William  M.  Tweed  was  organiser  and  fore- 
man. Parades  of  fire  companies,  chowder  parties 
and  picnics  (predecessors  of  the  present  *  ward 
leader's  outings  ')  under  the  auspices  of  the  volun- 
teer organisations,  annual  balls,  after  1829,  water- 
throwing  contests,  often  over  liberty  poles,  and  bit- 


204          FIRE   PREVENTION 

ter  fights  between  different  companies  (sometimes 
settled  by  fist-duels  between  selected  champions)  im- 
proved the  organisation  of  these  companies  as  politi- 
cal factors,  if  not  as  fire-fighters. 

"  So  devoted  were  the  volunteers  to  their  leaders 
that  in  1836  when  James  Gulick,  chief  engineer  since 
1831,  was  removed  from  office  for  political  reasons, 
the  news  of  his  removal  coming  when  the  volunteers 
were  fighting  a  fire  caused  them  all  to  stop  their 
work;  and  they  began  again  only  when  Gulick  as- 
sured them  that  the  news  was  false;  almost  all  the 
firemen  resigned  until  Gulick  was  reinstated.  The 
type  of  the  noisy  rowdy  New  York  volunteer  fire 
hero  was  made  famous  in  1848-1849,  by  Frank  S. 
Chanfrau's  playing  of  the  part  Mose,  in  Benjamin 
Baker's  play,  A  Glance  at  New  York.  The  Ells- 
worth Zouaves  of  New  York  were  raised  entirely 
from  volunteer  firemen  of  the  city.  In  1865,  when 
the  volunteer  service  was  abolished,  it  consisted  of 
123  companies  (52  engines,  54  hose,  57  hook  and 
ladder)  manned  by  3,521  men  (engines  averaging 
40-60  men,  hose  carts  about  25,  and  hook  and  ladder 
companies  about  40)  ;  the  chief  engineer,  elected  with 
assistants  for  terms  of  five  or  three  years  by  ballots 
of  the  firemen,  received  a  salary  of  $3,000  a  year, 
and  three  bell  ringers  in  each  of  eight  district  watch- 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    205 

towers,  who  watched  for  smoke  and  gave  alarms,  re- 
ceived $600  a  year.  The  Legislature,  in  March  1865, 
created  a  Metropolitan  Fire  District  and  established 
therein  a  fire  department,  headed  by  four  commis- 
sioners, who,  with  the  Mayor  and  Comptroller,  con- 
stituted a  Board  of  Estimate.  This  organisation 
was  practically  unchanged  until  1898,  when  the 
Greater  New  York  was  chartered  and  the  present 
system  was  introduced. 

"  The  fire  watch  tower  system  was  abolished  in 
1873;  the  present  system  is  that  of  red  box  electric 
telegraph  alarms  which  register  at  headquarters  in 
East  6yth  Street,  where  an  operator  sends  out  the 
alarm  to  that  engine  house  nearest  to  the  fire  which 
is  ready  to  respond;  a  chart  informs  the  operator 
of  the  absence  from  the  engine  house  of  apparatus. 
There  are  volunteer  forces  (about  2,700)  in  Queens 
and  Richmond  boroughs  and  in  other  outlying  dis- 


tricts." 


Another  account  of  the  fire  department's  develop- 
ment places  the  first  action  of  this  municipality 
against  the  fire  foe  at  a  somewhat  earlier  date.  It 
declares : 

"  Owing  to  the  building  of  wooden  and  thatch 
chimneys,  the  fire  American  fire  ordinance  was 
adopted  in  New  York  in  1648,  forbidding  their  use 


206          FIRE   PREVENTION 

and  providing  for  the  purchase  of  ladders,  hooks 
and  buckets.  This  ordinance  provided  for  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  leather  buckets,  which  were  distribu- 
ted about  the  town.  A  body  of  men,  purely  from  a 
spirit  of  public  duty,  patrolled  the  streets  all  night, 
on  watch  to  discover  fire.  From  their  persistent 
and  painstaking  public  spirit  they  were  at  once  given 
the  name  '  Prowlers.*  Their  efforts  were  fully 
appreciated,  it  would  seem,  for  a  few  years  later  the 
town  provided  additional  buckets,  a  number  of  short 
ladders  and  hooks,  when  the  number  of  Prowlers 
was  also  increased.  There  was,  however,  no  official 
organisation,  the  matter  being  individually  volun- 
tary. The  first  fire  company  governed  by  the  ruling 
and  mandate  of  civil  authority  was  organised  when 
the  first  engine  to  make  its  appearance  in  America 
was  received  by  the  *  Towne  of  Boston,'  in  1678. 
The  engine  was  imported  from  England  and  a  com- 
pany was  at  once  formed. 

"  A  few  years  later  two  of  the  Newsham  engines 
were  imported.  In  1808  Messrs.  Sellars  &  Penock, 
of  Philadelphia,  made  the  first  riveted  leather  hose, 
and  soon  after  an  ingenious  hose  carriage  of  Ameri- 
can invention  was  adopted  and  generally  used  for 
many  years.  Rubber  hose  was  first  imported  from 
England  in  1827,  and  is  the  foundation  of  our  hose 
of  the  present  day. 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    207 

"In  1829,  George  Braithwaite,  of  London,  built 
the  first  steam  fire  engine,  foreshadowing  the  over- 
throw and  disuse  of  the  hand  engines  in  thickly  popu- 
lated districts.  The  first  American-built  steamer 
was  not  practical  and  few  steam  fire  engines  were 
built  until  about  1852.  Captain  John  Ericsson,  how- 
ever, built  a  steamer  in  New  York  about  1841  that 
could  throw  a  stream  through  a  two-and-one-eighth 
inch  nozzle  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  feet  into  the 
air,  drawing  water  through  four  lines  of  hose.  A 
stationary  boiler,  from  which  hot  water  could  be 
quickly  transferred  to  the  engine  boiler,  was  kept  in 
the  engine  house  to  quicken  the  making  of  steam, 
but  the  machine  proved  cumberous,  heavy  and  ex- 
pensive and  was  discarded.  In  1852,  A.  B.  Latta 
of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  built  a  steam  fire  engine  that 
could  throw  a  stream  one  hundred  and  seventy  feet, 
and  afterwards  built  another  capable  of  throwing 
four  streams  two  hundred  feet  or  six  streams  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  through  a  seven- 
eighths-inch  nozzle. 

"  This  engine  weighed  approximately  nine  tons, 
and  required  six  horses  to  transport  it  with  a  speed 
that  to-day  would  indeed  be  termed  slow.  The  de- 
sign was  never  fully  completed.  These  two  engines 
were  followed  by  better  models  that  proved  so  satis- 
factory that  henceforth  the  hand  engine  was  gradu- 


208          FIRE    PREVENTION 

ally  crowded  out  of  favour  for  actual  service  in  the 
larger  communities.  The  *  Tub,'  however,  will 
always  be  remembered  by  the  l  old  boys/  who  even 
to-day  find  pleasure  in  manning  an  '  old  defender ' 
on  a  muster  field  and  hearing  the  familiar  '  Jump 
her '  and  *  Break  her  down.'  The  credit  for  the 
idea  of  a  self-propelled  engine  is  probably  due  to 
William  L.  Lay,  of  Philadelphia,  who,  in  1851,  at- 
tempted the  construction  of  such  a  model  which  was 
never  completed."  * 

The  machine  built  by  Hodge  in  New  York  in 
1840  was  a  "  straight  frame  model,  mounted  on  four 
wheels  with  the  boiler  lying  horizontally  between 
the  frame,  with  pumps  attached  to  each  side  of  the 
boiler,  and  with  suction  inlet  and  discharge  outlet 
mounted  over  the  front  gear."  The  first  self-pro- 
pelled engine  to  be  placed  in  actual  service  was  built 
in  Cincinnati  in  the  fifties.f 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  vital  importance 
of  the  fire  alarm  telegraph  in  any  city  department. 
It  is  the  artery  of  communication  for  the  entire  de- 
partment, and  if,  through  any  imperfections,  the 
smooth  flow  of  messages  through  it  be  interrupted, 

*  "  Bucket  Brigade  to  Flying  Squadron,"  by  T.  H.  Jeuness. 
tlbid. 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    209 

the  whole  efficiency  of  the  force  is  immediately  im- 
paired or  destroyed.  It  is  therefore  apparent  that 
the  best,  up-to-date  alarm  systems  should  be  installed 
in  every  city  which  desires  to  have  its  fire-fighting 
force  on  an  effective  basis.  In  New  York  this  is  un- 
fortunately not  the  case.  During  my  service  as 
chief  of  department  I  tried  time  and  again  to  insti- 
tute a  reform  in  this  important  matter.  The  sys- 
tem is  so  antiquated  in  many  particulars  as  to  be  a 
positive  menace  rather  than  a  protection  to  the  city. 
There  are  still  miles  of  overhead  cable,  much  of  it 
strung  along  the  elevated  railroad  lines,  as  poor  a 
place  for  it  as  could  well  be  conceived  under  modern 
methods  of  electric  traction,  though  safe  construc- 
tion when  steam  power  was  used. 

Moreover,  the  alarm  boxes  in  connection  with  the 
system  are  of  old-fashioned  type  to  a  great  extent. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  keyless,  which  is  proper, 
but  they  are  chiefly  of  the  antiquated  "  interfering  " 
type  also;  that  is  to  say,  the  number  of  circuits  has 
been  necessarily  greatly  increased  above  the  normal 
point  because  the  boxes  were  not  so  arranged  as  to 
relay  their  messages,  should  two  be  "  pulled  "  on 
the  same  circuit  at  the  same  time.  There  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  this  flaw  in  the  efficiency  of  the  city's  depart- 
ment, and  other  cities  should  take  warning  by  this 


210          FIRE   PREVENTION 

bad  example  and  see  that  they  are  provided  with 
"  non-interference  "  boxes  and  with  a  proper  ar- 
rangement of  cables  and  circuits.  An  alarm  system 
is  not  in  proper  condition  unless  it  is  capable  of  trans- 
mitting signals  practically  instantaneously,  and  is 
protected  against  interference  from  all  sources  short 
of  a  cataclysm. 

About  1869  the  first  fire-alarm  telegraph  system 
was  installed  in  New  York  City,  the  contract  calling 
for  the  introduction  of  street  boxes  and  other  ap- 
paratus in  the  territory  south  of  23rd  Street.  Since 
that  time  the  service  has,  of  course,  been  extended 
all  over  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  but,  with  few 
exceptions,  the  street  boxes  now  in  use  are  practically 
identical  with  the  type  of  box  originally  installed. 
Of  all  the  cities  in  the  United  States,  New  York 
alone  has  extended  its  fire-alarm  telegraph  on  lines 
abandoned  years  ago  as  "  obsolete  "  by  the  rest  of 
the  country.  The  original  telegraph  system  and  its 
extensions  was  operated  on  overhead  circuits, 
until  about  1888,  when  the  work  of  putting  them 
underground  was  commenced.  Although  the  orig- 
inal contracts  for  underground  construction  called 
for  an  expenditure  of  about  $475,000  by  the  city, 
the  investigation  of  the  telegraph  bureau  under  the 
Strong  administration  showed  conclusively  that  it 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    211 

was  poorly  done,  and  that  the  work  was  laid  out 
with  but  little'  attempt,  if  any,  to  provide  for  future 
requirements.  It  was  also  fully  shown  that  while 
this  imperfect  and  faulty  work  cost  the  city 
$475)°°°?  the  cost  of  doing  it  properly  and  effi- 
ciently would  not  have  been  over  $250,000.  The 
inevitable  result  of  such  methods  has  arrived; 
namely,  a  totally  inadequate  and  rapidly  decaying 
cable  system,  which  must  soon  be  almost  entirely  re- 
placed. 

This  cable  system  has  been  extended  quite  gener- 
ally throughout  Manhattan,  but  along  the  old  lines. 
Practically  no  reconstruction  has  been  attempted, 
and  the  system  is  to-day  heavily  overloaded.  As 
rapidly  as  circuits  became  useless  from  trouble, 
"  spare  "  wires  in  the  system  were  utilised.  At  the 
present  time,  the  system  has  practically  no  available 
spare  conductors  in  its  cables. 

With  the  growth  of  the  city,  the  old  telegraph 
headquarters  in  Mercer  Street  were  moved  to  67th 
Street  (the  present  location),  and  the  entire 
boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  were  cov- 
ered from  that  point,  until  a  few  years  ago  when  a 
new  headquarters  was  opened  for  the  Bronx,  which 
in  itself  is  inadequate.  As  the  system  stands  to- 
day, Manhattan  Borough  is  controlled  from  the 


212          FIRE   PREVENTION 

67th  Street  headquarters,  and  this  concentration  of 
the  system  in  one  building  constitutes  a  constant 
menace  to  the  lives  and  property  of  all  citizens  of 
the  borough.  A  fire  in  this  headquarters  building, 
a  fire  originating  in  an  adjoining  building,  could 
easily  destroy  the  entire  system  and  render  it  useless 
for  several  days.  Nothing  has  been  done  in  antici- 
pation of  such  a  contingency;  the  Borough  of  Man- 
hattan in  this  vitally  important  scheme  of  protection, 
is  "  carrying  all  its  eggs  in  one  basket." 

The  territory  in  the  borough  is  so  large,  and  the 
distances  are  so  great,  that  the  circuits  are  as  a  con- 
sequence too  long  and  carry  too  many  signal  boxes 
per  circuit.  Where  modern  fire-alarm  telegraph 
practice  has  determined  that  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  boxes  per  circuit  is  the  limit  of  safety,  New 
York  is  carrying  from  forty  to  sixty,  and  in  some 
cases  more  boxes  on  a  single  circuit.  All  experts 
are  agreed  that  there  should  not  be  less  than  two, 
and  probably  three,  central  telegraph  stations  for 
Manhattan,  in  order  that  the  system  may  be  placed 
on  a  solid  and  safe  basis.  The  obsolete  type  of 
"  interference  "  signal  box  used  in  Manhattan,  has 
had  a  bad  effect  upon  the  cable  system,  because  in 
order  to  avoid  a  confusion  of  signals  should  two  or 
more  boxes  on  the  same  circuit  be  pulled  simulta- 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    213 

neously  for  the  same  fire  (which  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon occurrence),  a  system  of  circuit  construction 
was  resorted  to,  known  as  "  interlacing  circuits. " 
This  means  that  the  boxes  in  any  particular  locality 
are  each  on  a  different  circuit,  and  the  term  "  inter- 
lacing "  therefore  fully  describes  this  method. 
This  interlacing  of  circuits  has  lengthened  the  cir- 
cuits abnormally,  and  brought  about  a  wholly  con- 
fused and  irregular  system. 

Modern  successive  non-interference  boxes  would 
not  only  prevent  a  confusion  of  signals,  but  would 
permit  of  the  shortening  and  straightening  of  the 
cable  system,  which  would  be  of  enormous  value. 
The  investigation  of  the  telegraph  bureau  during  the 
Strong  administration,  not  only  uncovered  its  true 
condition  and  its  record  of  failures  and  troubles, 
but  fully  exposed  the  dangers  present  on  account  of 
the  faulty  cable  system  and  the  obsolete  apparatus. 
Since  that  condition  of  affairs  was  made  known,  the 
system  has  remained  in  practically  the  same  condi- 
tion, although  an  attempt  was  made  by  me  during 
the  Van  Wyck  administration  to  improve  conditions, 
but  the  department  was  hampered  by  lack  of  money. 

Manhattan  to-day  needs  at  least  five  hundred  ad- 
ditional signal  boxes,  especially  throughout  the  great 
residential  sections  on  the  East  and  West  Sides,  but 


2i4          FIRE   PREVENTION 

the  condition  of  the  cable  system  is  such  that  this 
necessary  addition  could  not  be  accommodated  with- 
out radical  reconstruction.  While  the  cable  system 
is  of  the  highest  importance,  the  signal  boxes  are  no 
less  important.  It  is  sufficient  condemnation  of  the 
New  York  type  of  box  to  say  that  it  contains  no 
radical  improvement  made  in  the  art  of  fire  teleg- 
raphy for  the  past  thirty  years.  With  this  old 
type  of  box,  a  confusion  in  signals  is  caused  by  the 
simultaneous  operation  of  two  boxes  on  the  same 
circuit,  or  by  the  excited  manipulation  of  the  pull 
hook.  The  need  for  a  "  non-interference  "  pull  was 
recognised  as  early  as  1870,  and  such  a  pull  in- 
vented and  put  in  use;  but  more  than  forty  years 
later  fully  90  per  cent,  of  all  New  York  boxes  are 
without  this  important  device. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  modern  box  is  non-inter- 
fering in  its  pull  as  well  as  its  signalling,  and  is  also 
"  successive "  in  this  latter  function.  That  is,  if 
two  boxes  are  simultaneously  operated  on  the  same 
circuit,  one  of  them  will  send  in  its  signal  complete, 
and  will  then  be  automatically  "  succeeded  "  by  the 
other,  which  will  in  turn  transmit  its  distinctive 
signal  correctly. 

The  splendid  equipment  and  skill  of  the  fire-fight- 
ing force  of  the  department  cannot  be  brought  into 


NEW   YORK   DEPARTMENT    215 

play  until  it  is  notified  of  a  fire,  and  the  antiquated 
and  obsolete  system  of  notification  in  use  in  New 
York  is  a  standing  menace  to  life  and  property  and 
a  serious  discredit  to  the  city. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE  NATURE  AND  VALUE  OF  HIGH  PRESSURE 

IT  will  be  appreciated  by  all  who  are  familiar  with 
the  history  of  the  fire  loss,  that  nearly  all  of  the 
disastrous  fires  which  have  taken  place  in  this  and 
other  countries  have  been  the  result  of  an  in- 
adequate supply  of  water  with  which  to  fight  them. 
While  most  of  our  large  cities  are  surrounded  by 
an  abundance  of  water,  means  are  lacking  for  con- 
centrating it  at  the  scene  of  a  serious  fire.  Small 
mains  which  are  intended  for  a  normal  supply,  be- 
come practically  useless  in  the  face  of  a  conflagra- 
tion, and  the  chief  of  a  fire  department  is  often 
criticised  for  failure  to  control  a  fire,  when  the 
fault  really  lies  with  indifferent  city  officials  who 
have  failed  to  benefit  by  experience,  or  to  heed  his 
repeated  warnings. 

For  several  years  prior  to  my  assuming  the  office 
of  Chief  of  Department  in  New  York  City,  it  had 
been  apparent  that  the  water  mains,  as  they  existed 
at  that  time,  were  too  small  to  meet  the  demands 
of  a  rapidly  growing  community,  and  one  of  my 

216 


VALUE    OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    217 

first  official  recommendations  was  for  an  increase 
in  the  water  supply  generally,  and  more  particularly 
in  the  congested  districts. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1903,  when  several 
large  fires  occurred  in  New  York,  followed  by  many 
disastrous  ones  throughout  the  country,  that  the  city 
authorities  took  up  this  important  matter.  It  was 
wisely  determined  to  secure  the  best  system  that 
modern  engineering  ability  could  devise,  and  after 
careful  planning  and  discussion  from  every  point  of 
view,  the  "  high  pressure  "  service  of  our  city  was 
installed.  This,  then,  is  the  system  which  I  propose 
to  describe  from  the  standpoint  of  a  fireman,  briefly 
outlining  the  source  of  supply,  pumping  stations  and 
their  location,  the  distributing  mains,  hydrants  and 
equipment.  I  shall  describe  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  system  which  we  have  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  which  could  well  be  imitated  by  other  water 
front  cities  on  an  equal  or  smaller  scale. 

The  high  pressure  fire  system  in  Manhattan  now 
comprises  94  miles  of  mains,  12  to  24  inches  in 
diameter,  to  which  are  attached  2,065  hydrants 
which  are  connected  to  the  mains  by  8-inch  branches. 
The  boundaries  of  the  area  at  present  protected  by 
the  high  pressure  system  are  23rd  Street,  Madison 
Avenue,  24th  Street,  Lexington  Avenue,  I4th  Street, 


218          FIRE    PREVENTION 

3rd  Avenue,  Bowery,  East  River,  Maiden  Lane, 
Nassau  Street,  Chambers  Street,  and  North  River. 
The  district  covered  is  that  of  greatest  congestion 
and  highest  contents  and  building  value. 

There  is  at  present  under  contract  for  construc- 
tion an  extension  to  the  high  pressure  system,  which 
will  cover  the  balance  of  the  section  south  of  Cham- 
bers Street,  i.  e.,  that  bounded  by  Chambers  Street, 
Nassau  Street,  Maiden  Lane,  East  River,  Battery 
and  North  River. 

Plans  are  being  prepared  for  extensions  north  of 
23d  Street  between  North  River  and  Lexington  Ave- 
nue, to  34th  Street;  and  extensions  north  of  34th 
Street  between  North  River  and  Madison  Avenue  to 
59th  Street  are  contemplated.  There  are  two  pump- 
ing stations  in  Manhattan,  two  in  Brooklyn,  and  one 
in  Coney  Island.  The  system  in  Manhattan,  with- 
out the  additions  referred  to,  has  297,000  feet  of 
mains,  with  2,065  hydrants;  that  in  Brooklyn  has 
123,000  feet  of  mains  and  740  hydrants,  and  the 
system  in  Coney  Island  8,500  feet  of  mains  and  50 
hydrants. 

In  deciding  as  to  the  location  of  pumping  stations, 
prudence  directed  that  they  be  so  placed  as  to  be 
practically  outside  of  the  dangers  of  a  conflagration, 
yet  in  such  a  position  that  a  full  supply  of  water 
could  be  drawn,  from  either  the  salt  or  fresh  water 


<u    v 
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VALUE    OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    219 

sources.  This  is  always  a  desirable  condition  when 
it  is  practicable.  The  stations  in  the  Borough  of 
Manhattan  were  located  at  the  northwestern  and  at 
the  southern  ends  of  the  protected  area,  and  in  open 
spaces  where  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  fire 
to  injure  them.  The  Gansevoort  Street  station, 
which  is  almost  a  duplicate  of  the  station  at  Oliver 
Street,  is  a  one-story-and-basement  building,  ab- 
solutely fireproof,  and  is  97  feet  4  inches  long  by  63 
feet  8  inches  wide. 

The  buildings  are  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  eight 
pumping  units  each.  The  contract  called  for  a  de- 
livery from  each  pump  of  3,000  gallons  of  sea  water 
per  minute,  against  a  discharge  pressure  of  300 
pounds  per  square  inch,  and  a  suction  lift  not  exceed- 
ing 20  feet.  At  the  acceptance  tests,  with  six  units, 
the  fire  pumps  in  each  station  delivered  about  18,000 
gallons  per  minute  at  this  pressure,  and  some  of  the 
individual  pumps  delivered  over  3,800  gallons.  The 
total  can  be  increased  proportionately  without 
change  in  the  buildings  or  mains,  by  the  addition  of 
the  pumping  units  for  which  space  is  provided.  The 
supply  of  fresh  water  for  each  station  is  drawn  from 
large  mains  cross-connected  to  a  36-inch  main,  which 
in  turn  is  connected  with  the  station  by  two  24-inch 
mains. 

An  auxiliary  salt  water  supply,  consisting  of  two 


220          FIRE    PREVENTION 

3O-inch  mains,  brings  water  from  the  North  and 
East  Rivers.  These  mains  lead  to  suction  chambers 
directly  in  front  of  each  station,  and  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  pipes  are  at  all  times  below  mean 
low  water.  This  insures  a  steady  flow,  and  prevents 
the  possibilitv  of  a  break  by  air  being  admitted  to 
the  suction  lines.  The  river  ends  of  these  mains  are 
protected  by  heavy  bulk-head  screens,  and  the  suc- 
tion chamber  ends  by  heavy  bronze  screens,  which 
are  readily  accessible  for  cleaning.  From  the  suc- 
tion chambers,  two  3O-inch  flanged  mains  lead  to  a 
duplicate  set  of  mains  in  the  pumping  stations,  elec- 
tric vacuum  pumps  being  provided  to  maintain  a 
vacuum  in  the  pipes  when  required.  The  pumping 
units  consist  of  centrifugal  pumps  driven  by  electric 
motors,  the  pumps  and  motors  being  supported  on  a 
common  bed.  The  pumps  are  of  the  5-stage  type; 
the  motors  of  800  horsepower,  6,300  volts,  68 
amperes,  3-phase,  25  cycle,  4  pole,  and  run  at  a  speed 
of  740  revolutions  per  minute.  They  are  designed 
with  special  care  as  to  strength  and  ability  to  resist 
corrosion.  Each  stage  of  the  pumps  is  designed  to 
give  a  pressure  of  60  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  mak- 
ing the  combined  pressure  of  the  five  stages  300 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  which  is  the  maximum 
working  pressure  of  each  unit. 


VALUE   OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    221 

While  six  pumps  can  deliver  about  18,000  gallons 
per  minute  at  a  pressure  of  300  pounds,  a  much 
greater  volume  of  water  can  be  obtained  by  running 
the  pumps  at  a  lower  pressure.  A  pressure  of  from 
175  to  200  pounds  at  the  hydrant  is  the  average 
pressure  required  for  fire  duty,  and  if  working  at 
this  pressure,  each  station  will  deliver  with  this  com- 
plement of  pumping  units,  25,000  gallons  of  water 
per  minute,  or  50,000  gallons  for  both.  If  this 
amount  of  water  was  concentrated  within  a  radius 
of  500  feet,  no  imaginable  conflagration  could  exist 
against  it. 

The  pumping  units  are  directly  connected  to  their 
respective  motors,  which  are  set  in  operation  by 
throwing  a  switch  on  the  main  switchboard.  This 
brings  the  machine  into  instant  use,  and  the  max- 
imum pressure  can  be  developed  in  less  than  one 
minute.  The  current  for  these  motors  is  furnished 
at  a  pressure  of  6,600  volts;  each  station  has  four 
separate  electrical  feeders,  two  from  a  main  station 
and  two  from  the  nearest  sub-station.  Two  of  these 
four  feeders  will  operate  five  pumps.  Provision  is 
made  for  connection  with  the  Brooklyn  stations  of 
the  company  which  supplies  the  power  in  cases  of 
emergency. 

Two  24-inch  mains  lead  out  of  each  station,  and 


222          FIRE    PREVENTION 

are  practically  carried  around  the  entire  area;  these 
are  intersected  by  lateral  branch  mains,  1 2-inch  and 
1 6-inch,  which  are  cross-connected  by  2O-inch  mains 
at  frequent  intervals,  so  that  water  has  only  to  travel 
a  short  distance  through  a  main  smaller  than  twenty 
inches  before  reaching  the  hydrants.  Hydrants  are 
connected  with  the  mains  by  8-inch  branch  pipes. 
Gates  are  located  about  250  feet  apart  throughout 
the  entire  area,  making  possible  needed  repairs  with- 
out affecting  any  hydrants  except  those  located  on 
the  25O-foot  main  between  the  gates.  The  pipe  sys- 
tem can  deliver,  without  an  excessive  drop  in  pres- 
sure due  to  friction  loss  in  the  main,  20,000  gallons 
per  minute  around  any  block,  or  the  full  capacity  of 
both  stations  within  an  area  of  about  one-quarter  of 
a  square  mile. 

The  work  of  the  fire  department  commences  at 
the  hydrant,  and  no  part  of  a  high  pressure  system 
is  more  important  in  determining  its  efficiency  than 
the  type  of  hydrant,  as  the  proper  operation  of  the 
system  depends  upon  its  unfailing  service.  The  selec- 
tion of  a  fire  hydrant,  therefore,  was  one  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  with  which  we  had  to  cope. 
The  following  are  the  principal  points  which  gov- 
erned our  selection  and  which  should  be  considered 
by  any  city  intending  to  install  a  high  pressure 
system : 


VALUE    OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    223 

First:  Suitability  of  design.  Under  this  head- 
ing we  considered  the  design,  workmanship  and  ma- 
terial from  the  view-point  of  securing  a  hydrant 
which  would  give  the  maximum  of  reliable  service. 
Second:  Facility  of  operation.  Third:  Freedom 
from  frictional  resistance,  thus  insuring  maximum 
delivery.  Fourth:  Perfect  drainage,  insuring  an 
absolutely  non-freezing  hydrant. 

Specifications  should  be  prepared  governing  the 
foregoing  points,  with  a  view  to  securing  the  strong- 
est, simplest  and  most  reliable  hydrant  for  the  ex- 
traordinarily severe  usage  to  which  it  will  of  neces- 
sity be  subjected.  In  New  York  bidders  were  re- 
quired to  submit  sample  hydrants  with  their  bids. 
The  hydrants  so  submitted  were  put  through  the 
most  careful  and  exhaustive  tests  by  the  engineers  of 
the  water  supply  and  fire  departments.  Without 
going  into  full  details  of  these  tests,  it  may  be  well  to 
state  that  they  were  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  following  points : 

Quality  of  material  used.  Extent  of  leakage  un- 
der various  pressures.  Facility  with  which  main  and 
independent  valves  could  be  opened  and  closed,  and 
the  number  of  turns  required  for  each  operation. 
Thoroughness  with  which  hydrants  drained. 

After  thesL  tests  had  been  made,  the  hydrants 
were  taken  apart  and  measured  and  inspected,  to 


224          FIRE   PREVENTION 

determine  whether  the  materials  and  dimensions  con- 
formed to  the  specifications.  They  were  then  re- 
assembled, and  submitted  to  a  final  test  with  a  rep- 
etition of  the  original  hydrostatic  test  for  tightness 
under  pressure  of  from  300  to  600  pounds.  I  am 
such  a  strong  believer  in  thorough  tests  for  all  parts 
and  materials  to  be  used  for  fire-fighting  that  I  feel 
this  sort  of  testing  to  be  an  essential  part  of  the  in- 
stallation of  high  pressure  service.  The  high  pres- 
sure hydrants  first  installed  in  this  city  had  one  4^- 
inch  and  three  3-inch  outlets;  but  those  used  in  the 
extension  of  the  system  were  furnished  with  four  3- 
inch  outlets,  giving  a  capacity  at  each  hydrant  of 
four  2-Inch  streams  with  75  pounds  nozzle  pressure, 
and  approximately  4,000  gallons  of  water  per 
minute. 

It  was  deemed  advisable  in  hydrants  to  be  used 
for  this  high  pressure  service,  that  the  main  valve, 
which  is  six  inches  in  diameter,  should  open  down- 
wards against  the  pressure  in  the  mains.  In  order, 
therefore,  that  the  operation  of  opening  this  main 
valve  against  the  heavy  pressures  which  were  liable 
to  be  in  the  mains  of  the  service,  should  be  an  easy 
and  rapid  one,  the  valve  was  so  designed  that  the 
first  three  turns  of  the  operating  wrench  would  open 
a  pilot  valve,  thereby  admitting  water  to  the  barrel 


VALUE   OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    225 

of  the  hydrant  and  equalising  the  pressure  on  both 
sides  of  the  main  valve,  after  which  the  main  valve 
could  be  opened  easily  and  without  resistance.  The 
equalisation  of  pressure  by  means  of  this  pilot  valve 
is  brought  about  within  a  few  seconds  after  the 
operation  of  the  opening  wrench  has  been  started. 

The  operation  of  this  main  valve,  in  addition  to 
opening  the  pilot  valve  just  mentioned,  operates  the 
drip  valve  as  well,  closing  it  as  the  main  valve  is 
opened,  and  opening  it  as  the  main  valve  is  closed. 
The  drip  valve  has  a  pipe  connection  with  the  sewer, 
and  fully  drains  the  barrel  of  the  hydrant  after  use. 
The  independent  valves,  or  those  controlling  the 
hose  outlets,  are  provided  with  a  device  so  arranged 
that  the  pressure  on  the  valve  is  balanced,  permitting 
them  to  be  easily  opened  with  a  5-inch  wrench  under 
a  pressure  of  250  pounds. 

In  the  latter  part  of  June,  1908,  the  engineers  in 
charge  of  construction  reported  the  work  of  instal- 
lation as  completed,  and  requested  the  fire  depart- 
ment officials  to  give  the  system  a  test  This  test 
was  made  on  West  Street  along  the  North  River 
front.  Twenty-one  3-inch  lines  were  stretched  from 
seven  hydrants  and  twelve  2-inch  and  nine  ij^-inch 
nozzles  were  used.  In  two  minutes  after  the  order 
to  start  water  was  given,  a  pressure  of  eighty  pounds 


226          FIRE   PREVENTION 

was  registered  at  the  nozzles,  and  so  great  was  the 
quantity  of  water  delivered  that  the  street  was  con- 
verted into  a  lake  overflowing  towards  the  docks. 
The  illustration  which  shows  this  test  will  give  a 
better  idea  of  the  enormous  volume  of  water  than 
any  words. 

A  second  test  was  then  made,  using  twelve  3-inch 
lines  with  i^-inch  nozzles,  six  siamesed  lines  with 
2-inch  nozzles,  a  water  tower  and  a  deck  pipe;  the 
nozzle  on  the  tower  being  2-inch,  and  on  the  deck 
pipe  1 24 -inch.  In  one  minute  after  giving  the  order 
to  start  the  water,  a  nozzle  pressure  of  150  pounds 
was  obtained;  in  two  minutes,  195  pounds  was 
registered  on  the  1^2 -inch  nozzles,  and  175  on  the 
2-inch.  With  the  nozzles  elevated  to  an  arc  of  80 
degrees,  this  pressure  carried  a  solid  stream  100 
feet  above  the  roof  of  a  fourteen-story  building. 
The  gauge  on  the  water-tower  at  this  time  registered 
270  pounds.  In  this  test,  six  pumping  units  were 
used — three  at  each  station.  On  the  first  unit,  30 
seconds  was  required  to  develop  300  pounds  pres- 
sure; 21  seconds  on  the  second,  and  17  seconds  on 
the  third  unit.  The  pumps  in  the  Oliver  Street 
station  recorded  a  pressure  of  315  pounds,  and  those 
at  Gansevoort  Street  recorded  310  pounds,  an  aver- 
age pressure  of  300  pounds  being  maintained  on  all 
hydrants  used. 


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VALUE    OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    227 

On  July  6,  1908,  the  system  was  formally  turned 
over  to  the  fire  department,  necessary  orders  for  its 
use  being  issued  to  chief  officers  and  company  com- 
manders. At  the  outset,  companies  responded  to 
alarms  in  the  high  pressure  district  with  engines,  and 
as  a  precautionary  measure,  made  connections  with 
the  low  pressure  hydrants.  As  continued  experience 
demonstrated  the  value  and  reliability  of  the  high 
pressure  system,  these  orders  were  changed;  so  that 
at  the  present  time  no  engines  respond  to  any  alarm 
whatever  in  the  high  pressure  district,  except  in 
obedience  to  special  signals  which  may  be  sent  out 
under  certain  conditions. 

For  the  first  six  months  no  very  large  fire  occurred 
in  the  area  covered  by  the  high  pressure  service,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  7th  of  January,  1909,  that  an  op- 
portunity occurred  to  try  it  out  under  the  most  severe 
and  exacting  conditions.  On  this  date  the  streets  were 
almost  impassable  with  snow,  the  temperature  was 
but  a  few  degrees  above  zero,  and  the  wind  was 
blowing  at  a  velocity  of  fifty  miles  an  hour.  At  7 124 
P.  M.,  the  department  was  called  to  a  fire  in  a 
seven-story  building  at  Hudson  and  Franklin 
Streets.  This  building  was  occupied  as  a  whole- 
sale tea  house,  and  on  the  arrival  of  the 
department  the  fire  had  extended  throughout  the 
building.  I  responded  on  the  second  alarm, 


228          FIRE   PREVENTION 

and  found  a  fire  of  great  magnitude  border- 
ing the  congested  dry. goods  district,  surrounded  by 
old  buildings  filled  with  combustible  material,  and 
providing  a  complete  setting  for  a  possible  dis- 
astrous conflagration  which  might  easily  have  proven 
to  be  a  national  calamity,  as  within  a  radius  of  two 
thousand  feet  of  the  building  was  more  than  a  hun- 
dred million  dollars'  worth  of  property. 

While  this  fire  was  in  progress,  and  still  far  from 
under  control,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  fourth  alarm 
assignment  was  at  work  at  it,  a  third  alarm  fire  broke 
out  on  the  Bowery,  and  a  fifth  alarm  fire  on  Broad- 
way— all  within  a  square  mile  of  territory.  Each  of 
these  three  simultaneous  fires  would  have  been  a  fifth 
alarm  fire  under  the  old  order,  and  I  seriously  doubt 
if  these  three  fires  could  have  been  controlled  with 
engines,  particularly  when  the  difficulty  of  moving 
apparatus  and  supplying  fuel,  under  conditions  then 
existing,  is  considered.  The  emergency  for  which 
the  high  pressure  was  installed  had  thus  arrived  and 
it  was  met  in  the  most  complete  manner. 

Fourteen  million  gallons  of  water  were  delivered 
from  the  pumping  stations  on  these  fires  at  a  pres- 
sure of  225  pounds  at  the  hydrant;  and  this  was  done 
with  but  seven  of  the  ten  pumping  units  in  service, 
the  other  three  being  held  in  reserve.  One  hundred 


VALUE   OF   HIGH   PRESSURE   229 

steam  engines  would  have  been  required  to  deliver 
this  amount  of  water,  and  under  the  conditions  out- 
lined, I  doubt  very  much  if  it  could  have  been  done. 
The  records  of  the  Water  Supply  Department  show 
the  cost  of  electric  current  for  operating  the  seven 
pumping  units  at  these  fires,  and  delivering  the  four- 
teen million  gallons  of  water,  was  $1,200. 

The  use  of  centralised  energy  for  delivering  water 
at  high  pressure  through  a  system  as  described  in- 
volves the  maintenance  upon  the  entire  main  and 
hydrant  system  of  the  maximum  pressure  required 
for  use  at  any  particular  point.  It  is,  therefore,  quite 
likely  to  happen  that  while  a  pressure  of  125  pounds 
may  be  ample  at  one  fire,  200  or  250  pounds  would 
be  required  at  another  fire  in  the  protected  area. 
This  being  the  case,  the  pressure  would  have  to  be 
raised  in  the  entire  system;  and  the  sudden  increase 
from  125  to  250  pounds,  coming  as  it  would  un- 
heralded, would  make  it  difficult  to  control  the  lines 
at  the  small  fire  used  in  this  illustration,  and  might 
seriously  endanger  the  men  at  work  there.  To  fur- 
ther illustrate,  it  is  often  desirable  to  take  water 
from  a  hydrant  at  75  pounds  for  a  hand  line,  and  to 
take  water  from  another  outlet  in  the  same  hydrant 
at  225  pounds  for  a  tower  or  deck  pipe. 

To  make  this  possible  a  regulating  valve  is  es- 


230          F.I  RE   PREVENTION 

sential.  Such  a  valve  has  been  designed,  and  after 
full  tests  of  its  operation,  it  is  now  in  use  in  the  New 
York  department.  This  valve  weighs  but  twenty- 
five  pounds,  and  is  attached  to  the  hydrant  outlet.  A 
pressure  gauge  is  inserted  on  the  hose  side,  and  the 
controlling  valve  opened  until  the  pressure  on  the 
gauge  reads  the  point  desire'd.  No  matter  to  what 
extent  the  pressure  on  the  receiving  side  of  this  regu- 
lating valve  is  increased,  the  pressure  on  the  dis- 
charging side  remains  at  the  point  selected;  and  if 
a  shut-off  nozzle  is  used  on  the  line,  and  is  suddenly 
closed,  -the  pressure  in  the  line  is  automatically  con- 
trolled and  cannot  rise  beyond  the  point  arbitrarily 
fixed  as  indicated. 

It  will  readily  be  appreciated  that  a  pressure  regu- 
lating valve  of  this  type  is  an  essential  feature  of  a 
high  pressure  system;  fpr  without  it,  such  service 
cannot  be  properly  controlled  or  utilised  to  the  full 
extent  of  its  inherent  possibilities.  In  order  to 
guard  against  the  somewhat  remote  possibility  of  the 
breakdown  of  all  pumping  units  in  both  stations, 
provisions  were  made  in  New  York  for  connecting 
the  fire-boats  of  the  department  to  the  high  pressure 
system,  by  means  of  hydrants  located  along  the 
water  fronts.  This  is  a  practice  to  be  recommended 
for  any  city  equipped  with  fire-boats.  These  boats 


VALUE   OF   HIGH   PRESSURE 

can  deliver  through  this  system,  60,000  gallons  of 
water  per  minute  at  a  pressure  of  250  pounds. 
Further,  in  the  event  of  a  very  large  conflagration, 
or  of  several  simultaneous  fires,  the  capacity  of  the 
high  pressure  mains  can  be  doubled  by  using  the  fire- 
boats  in  conjunction  with  the  pumping  stations,  both 
together  being  capable  of  delivering  100,000  gallons 
per  minutes  through  the  hydrant  system. 

In  the  extension  of  the  service  which  has  been  de- 
scribed duplicate  mains  and  hydrants  were  installed. 
This  is  a  wise  safeguard,  for  in  the  event  of  a  break 
in  one  set  of  mains,  lines  can  be  quickly  transferred 
to  the  other  set.  The  routine  operation  of  the 
pumping  stations  may  be  likened  to  that  of  an  en- 
gine or  other  apparatus  company,  in  that  the  stations 
receive  in  the  customary  manner,  all  alarms  of  fire 
which  are  transmitted  over  the  fire-alarm  telegraph 
system.  Upon  the  receipt  of  an  alarm  from  a  sta- 
tion within  the  high  pressure  district,  the  pumps  are 
instantly  set  in  operation  and  the  pressure  in  the 
mains  raised  to  125  pounds,  this  pressure  of  course 
being  immediately  available  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
companies  at  the  fire. 

The  control  of  the  pressure  thereafter,  whether 
for  shutting  down  the  pumps  altogether,  or  for  di- 
minishing or  increasing  it,  lies  with  the  officer  in 


232          FIRE   PREVENTION 

command  at  the  fire.  His  orders  are  transmitted 
to  the  pumping  stations  over  special  telephones, 
which  are  located  at  frequent  intervals  throughout 
the  protected  area.  These  telephones  are  placed  on 
the  walls  of  buildings,  and  are  connected  on  circuits 
leading  directly  to  the  stations,  and  are  maintained 
under  contract  with  the  local  telephone  company. 

Experience  has  demonstrated,  however,  that  this 
system  of  transmitting  orders  to  the  pumping  sta- 
tions, is  susceptible  of  much  improvement.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  slowness  of  telephone  communication  as 
compared  with  telegraphic  signalling,  and  the  ever- 
present  possibility  of  a  misunderstanding  of  orders, 
the  difficulties  attendant  upon  telephoning  under 
severe  weather  conditions,  and  upon  the  noisy  streets, 
are  considerable.  Beyond  this,  also,  is  the  imprac- 
ticability of  making  a  permanent  record  of  orders 
issued,  and  of  thus  placing  responsibility  for  any 
errors  which  may  be  made.  This  applies  to  orders 
for  pressure  when  water  is  desired  for  a  fire  out- 
side of  but  close  to  the  high  pressure  zone.  A  case 
of  this  kind  was  the  costly  fire  in  the  Equitable 
Building. 

In  my  judgment,  orders  from  the  commanding 
officer  to  the  pumping  stations  should  be  sent  tele- 
graphically, and  should  be  simultaneously  received, 


VALUE   OF   HIGH   PRESSURE    233 

recorded,  and  stamped  with  the  hour  and  minute  of 
their  receipt,  both  in  the  headquarters  of  the  fire  de- 
partment and  in  the  pumping  stations.  A  special 
signal  station  for  this  purpose  could  be  so  arranged 
that  the  setting  of  a  pointer  to  the  pressure  desired, 
and  the  "  pulling  of  the  hook  "  would  automatically 
telegraph  the  desired  order,  and  cause  the  simul- 
taneous record  to  be  made  as  indicated,  obviating 
any  possiblity  of  delay  or  misunderstanding.  A 
telephone  set  in  connection  with  such  a  signal  box, 
would  be  a  valuable  auxiliary. 

The  almost  immediate  effect  on  insurance  rates 
was  one  of  the  most  gratifying  results  of  the  installa- 
tion of  the  high  pressure  service  in  New  York  City. 
In  December,  1908,  about  six  months  after  the  sys- 
tem was  put  in  actual  use,  the  New  York  Fire  Insur- 
ance Exchange  made  a  general  reduction  in  rates  in 
the  high  pressure  zone  in  the  Borough  of  Manhat- 
tan, which  amounted  to  a  saving  in  premiums  of 
$500,000  annually.  Of  the  reduction  in  insurance 
rates  in  Brooklyn,  due  to  improved  water  supply, 
$250,000  annually  is  due  to  the  high  pressure  sys- 
tem, so  that  this  great  improvement  earned  $750,000 
returned  per  year  to  the  taxpayers,  shortly  after  its 
installation.  The  saving  has  since  that  time  been 
greatly  increased. 


234 


FIRE    PREVENTION 


The  system  is,  therefore,  not  only  to  be  regarded 
as  a  great  protection  to  life  and  property,  but  as  one 
of  the  most  productive  investments  which  the  city  has 
made.  Every  improvement  is  fire-fighting  devices 
should  be  freely  given  to  those  charged  with  the 
great  responsibility  of  protecting  life  and  property 
in  our  crowded  cities ;  and  this  very  responsiblity  de- 
mands that  we  should  not  hesitate  to  ask  for  needed 
appropriations,  and  that  the  authorities  of  our  cities 
should  not  hesitate  to  grant  them.  It  would  be  hard 
to  find  a  better  investment  from  the  fire  hazard 
standpoint  than  a  high  pressure  system  of  the  gen- 
eral type  which  I  have  described,  for  any  city  whose 
location  makes  its  installation  possible. 


Center  Central  Feed  to  Automatic  Sprinklers.    Best  form  O  shows 
a  Sprinkler.     O  shows  a   Riser. 


End  Central    Feed  to  Automatic  Sprinklers.     Not  deslreable.    O 
shows  a  Sprinkler.     O  shows  a  Riser. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE  MODERN  FIRE-BOAT :  ITS  NATURE  AND  USE 

ANY  city  which  is  so  situated  geographically  as  to  be 
able  to  supplement  its  fire  department  by  the  addition 
of  fire-boats,  would  do  well  to  make  a  study  of  these 
effective  floating  fire  engines  and  at  once  acquire  as 
many  as  the  size  of  the  city  and  the  extent  of  its 
water  frontage  call  for.  Experience  has  amply 
demonstrated  their  value,  wherever  there  is  a  built- 
up  water  front,  or  wherever  any  congested  or 
hazardous  district  of  the  city  is  sufficiently  near  the 
water  to  make  the  service  of  the  boats  available. 
As  nearly  all  cities  on  ocean  harbours,  rivers  or 
large  lakes  have  important  dockage  areas  and  piers 
which  are  invariably  difficult  to  protect  from  fire  by 
the  ordinary  resources,  it  will  be  appreciated  that  the 
field  of  the  fire-boat  is  a  wide  one. 

It  is  important  that  these  water  batteries  of 
pumps  and  nozzles,  which  can  throw  more  water  in 
a  minute  than  a  dozen  land  engines  of  the  largest 
size,  should  be  of  good  design  and  construction. 
The  best  is  none  too  good,  and  if  the  best  is  pur- 

235 


236          FIRE   PREVENTION 

chased,  the  department  will  find  itself  in  possession 
of  an  extremely  useful  and  effective  piece  of  fire-fight- 
ing machinery.  I  have,  therefore,  described  some- 
what in  detail  the  construction  and  equipment  of  a 
high-grade  fire-boat,  such  as  those  now  in  the  pos- 
session of  New  York  City,  as  a  model  on  which  I 
believe  these  pieces  of  apparatus  may  well  be  pat- 
terned. Naturally  the  first  step  is  always  to  secure 
the  necessary  funds  for  the  purchase  or  building  of 
the  fire-boat,  but  this  should  be  no  very  difficult  mat- 
ter, once  the  advantage  of  these  powerful  factors  in 
the  battle  against  fire  is  realised. 

After  a  suitable  appropriation  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  fire-boat  has  been  made,  the  most  important 
of  the  initial  steps  towards  placing  in  commission 
a  thorough,  efficient  and  economical  fire-fighting 
machine,  is  the  selection  of  the  marine  architect  who 
is  to  design  the  boat.  The  architect,  needless  to  say, 
should  be  fully  conversant  with  every  detail  of  his 
profession,  and,  furthermore,  he  should  possess  a 
general  knowledge  of  fire-fighting  apparatus.  It 
can  be  stated  almost  axiomatically  that  an  architect 
and  builder  well  chosen  means  a  boat  well  built.  In 
addition  to  this  too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed 
upon  the  prohibition  of  innovations  in  the  construc- 
tion which  have  not  been  fully  tested,  and  have  thus 


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THE    MODERN   FIRE-BOAT    237 

demonstrated  their  worth.  A  mistake  as  to  the 
possibilities  of  an  untried  device  may  in  the  future 
result  in  serious  loss  of  life  or  property.  On  the 
other  hand,  of  course,  no  hinderance  should  be 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  application  of  proved  ad- 
vances in  the  construction  and  operation. 

To  design  a  boat  that  can  be  manoeuvred  in  nar- 
row and  crowded  slips,  basins  and  channels,  it  is 
necessary  to  lay  down  some  general  rules  of  construc- 
tion. First,  the  boat  should  be  twin  screw,  and  her 
engines  of  the  compound  type.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  said  that  for  this  purpose  single  expansion 
engines  are  not  reliable;  they  are  unsuited  for 
manoeuvring,  are  less  efficient,  and  should  be  elimi- 
nated at  the  start. 

The  triple  expansion  engine  is  likewise  not 
adapted  for  fire-boat  use,  as  it  takes  some  time  to 
warm  up  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  With  the 
compound  engine  this  disadvantage  is  avoided,  and 
the  steam  is  in  better  condition  as  it  enters  the  low 
pressure  cylinder;  in  consequence  the  boat  can  be 
started  more  quickly,  and  it  is  possible  to  make  better 
time  to  a  point  within  three  miles  of  the  station  from 
which  the  boat  is  started.  For  this  reason  I  favour 
the  compound,  reciprocating  engine  for  driving  the 
boat. 


238          FIRE   PREVENTION 

If  the  turbine  could  be  reversed  as  quickly  and 
certainly  as  the  reciprocating  engine,  I  would  favour 
it;  but  in  this  regard  many  things  still  remain  to  be 
demonstrated  with  this  otherwise  excellent  prime 
mover.  One  cannot  afford  to  experiment  in  the 
fire  service,  and  while  the  turbine  is  a  splendid  en- 
gine to  drive  the  pumps,  for  the  present  at  least,  I 
recommend  that  the  reciprocating  engine  be  used  as 
propelling  agent  for  the  boat,  and  the  turbine  to 
operate  the  fire  pumps. 

The  boat  with  twin  screws  has  many  advantages 
over  one  with  a  single  screw.  She  can  be  "  worked 
short "  in  crowded  slips,  and  turned  almost  in  her 
own  length.  At  large  pier  fires,  where  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  get  a  line  fast  in  order  to  moor 
the  boat,  the  twin  screw  boat  can  stand  up  and  fight, 
where  one  with  a  single  screw  is  driven  off  by  the 
pressure  exerted  on  the  standpipes. 

In  the  important  element  of  speed  the  advantage 
is  with  the  twin  screw  boat.  Her  propellers  are 
properly  submerged;  they  are  far  enough  under 
water  to  avoid  striking  floating  logs,  ice  or  other 
obstructions,  as  well  as  being  prevented  from  taking 
air.  They  are  smaller  in  diameter  than  a  single 
screw,  and  the  greater  dimension  of  the  latter  is  one 
of  its  weak  points.  A  boat  of  light  draught  is  im- 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    239 

perative  in  order  to  reach  fires  adjacent  to  shallow 
water;  it  is  almost  impossible  to  design  a  boat  of 
light  draught,  say  nine  feet,  and  to  obtain  a  screw 
large  enough,  and  arranged  at  a  sufficient  depth  un- 
der water,  say  one  foot  six  inches,  to  drive  her  at  a 
rate  of  speed  higher  than  ten  miles  an  hour. 

With  the  twin  screw  boat  these  objections  do  not 
exist,  and  even  if  there  were  but  one  point  in  favour 
of  the  twin  screw  boat,  that  of  her  great  manoeuvring 
power,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  commend  this  type 
for  a  fire-boat. 

The  fire-boat  I  would  recommend  should  be  120 
feet  in  length  over  all,  with  a  24-foot  beam  and  a 
9-foot  draught ;  and  should  be  built  of  steel.  Frames 
spaced  20  inches,  centre  to  centre,  except  forward, 
where,  for  18  feet  on  each  bow,  they  should  be  12 
inches  apart,  centre  to  centre.  This  feature  is  nec- 
essary to  strengthen  the  boat  for  forcing  her  through 
heavy  ice  and  against  obstructions. 

The  decks  should  be  flush  fore  and  aft,  and  as 
clear  as  possible  of  all  obstructions,  as  the  boat  must 
be  ready  for  action  at  all  times.  The  common  prac- 
tice of  providing  a  large  pilot  house  should  be 
avoided.  The  edges  of  the  pilot  house  should  be 
rounded  so  that  the  couplings  of  the  hose  will  not 
catch;  a  small  skylight  between  the  pilot  house  and 


24o          FIRE    PREVENTION 

the  tower  can  be  provided  to  ventilate  the  engine 
room.  A  boiler  hatch  is  necessary  for  the  same  pur- 
pose; this,  with  the  tower,  which  can  be  used  as  a 
staff  for  running  lights,  and  the  turrets  and  hose  reels 
are  about  all  that  should  be  located  on  deck.  The 
turrets  stand  directly  over  the  pumps.  They  will 
be  described  at  length  in  conjunction  with  the  fire 
pumps,  and  the  water  circuit. 

The  boat  should  be  protected  by  means  of  proper 
guards;  there  are  times  at  a  fire  when  it  is  necessary 
to  force  the  vessel  into  crowded  slips,  and  in  order 
that  she  may  sustain  as  little  damage  as  possible  at 
such  times,  the  guards  and  rails  should  be  strongly 
built  of  sound,  well-seasoned  oak. 

The  upper  guard  should  run  from  the  stem  at  one 
side  around  the  hull,  and  meet  the  stem  at  the  other 
side;  it  should  be  about  10  inches  deep,  bevelled  out- 
wardly on  the  under  side  to  7  inches,  and  12  inches 
wide.  Around  the  stern,  the  width  can  be  dimin- 
ished to  10  inches.  The  lower  guard  should  be 
about  8x8  inches,  tapering  out  to  a  6-inch  face 
width,  and  should  be  faced  with  a  5-inch  x  %-inch 
plate  with  rounded  edges. 

The  main  rail  should  be  of  white  oak  13  x  4^2 
inches,  in  long  lengths,  with  a  4-foot  hook  scarf, 
the  rail  to  be  protected  with  half-oval  galvanised 
iron  31/2  x  %  inches  around  the  outside  of  the  boat. 


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THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    241 

About  every  ten  feet  there  should  be  an  opening  with 
a  brass  sleeve  large  enough  to  take  rail  pipes. 

The  deck  may  be  ignored  for  the  present,  and  the 
boilers  described.  As  an  indication  of  the  import- 
ance of  this  point  it  may  be  said  that  deficient  steam- 
ing capacity  has  been  the  weak  spot  of  nearly  all  fire- 
boats.  There  is  to-day  no  boat  in  the  fire  service 
that  can  run  her  pumps  and  auxiliaries  to  their  full 
capacity  and  also  furnish  steam  for  the  operation  of 
the  main  engine,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
operate  the  latter,  as  the  boat  must  be  under  full 
control  at  all  times. 

I  shall  endeavour  to  suggest  a  set  of  boilers  which 
will  run  the  fire  pumps  and  auxiliaries  and  still  have 
sufficient  steam  horse  power  in  reserve  to  operate  the 
main  engine  for  manoeuvring  purposes,  or  slow  tow- 
ing, if  necessary.  The  boilers  should  be  of  the 
water  tube  type  with  large  straight  tubes,  a  grate 
surface  of  120  square  feet,  a  heating  surface  of  4,500 
square  feet  and  with  a  working  pressure  of  225 
pounds  under  forced  draught;  either  a  closed  ash  pit 
or  an  air-tight  fire  room  should  be  employed.  Such 
boilers  would  evaporate  24,000  pounds  of  water  on 
an  estimated  consumption  of  25  pounds  of  coal  per 
square  foot  of  grate  surface;  that  is  to  say  120  x  25 
x  8=24,000. 

The  turbine  pump  would  consume    17  to 


242          FIRE    PREVENTION 

pounds  of  water  per  boiler  horse  power  hour,  and 
to  throw  8,000  gallons  of  water  per  minute  at  150 
pounds  pressure,  it  would  require  approximately 
1,000  horse  power.  Consequently  the  total  steam 
consumption  for  the  entire  pumping  and  main,  or 
propelling,  engines  would  be: 

Main  engine,  150  horse  power  at  20  pounds  per 
boiler  horse  power— 3,000. 

Auxiliaries,  estimated,  75  horse  power  at  40 
pounds  per  boiler  horse  power=3,ooo. 

Fire  pumps,  1,000  horse  power  at  17^  pounds 
per  boiler  horse  power— 17,500. 

Total  23,500. 

This  is  a  conservative  estimate  of  the  necessary 
steaming  capacity,  and  as  the  boilers  can  easily  sup- 
ply 24,000  pounds  of  steam  there  is  a  comfortable 
margin  of  safety.  I  prefer  to  have  boilers  installed 
fore  and  aft;  there  would  not  be  room  in  a  boat 
with  24-foot  beam  to  place  them  athwart  ship. 
Furthermore  I  am  opposed  on  principle  to  the  latter 
arrangement  of  the  boilers,  as  it  makes  it  difficult  to 
get  around  to  clean,  and  otherwise  take  proper  care 
of  them. 

The  coal  and  water  supply  for  the  boilers  must 
be  ample  for  all  purposes.  The  bunker  capacity 
should  be  at  least  35  tons,  with  a  fore  and  aft  ar- 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    243 

rangement  of  the  bunkers.  This  is  preferable  to  a 
thwartship  arrangement,  as  the  boat  is  thus  far  less 
difficult  to  trim  than  with  the  latter.  In  sea  coast 
cities  it  is  necessary  to  provide  fresh  water  tanks 
for  obvious  reasons,  while  in  cities  on  the  Great 
Lakes  this  is  not  the  case.  There  the  feed  water 
for  the  boilers  can  be  pumped  directly  from  the 
lake  or  river  on  which  the  boat  operates.  I  am 
seriously  opposed  to  the  use  of  the  built-in  tank,  and 
prefer  the  utilisation  of  the  vessel's  sides  and  bot- 
tom directly,  as  part  of  the  tank  wall,  owing  to  the 
greater  difficulty  in  cleaning  and  repairing  the  built- 
in  tank. 

The  main  engine,  as  I  have  already  stated,  should 
comprise  two  units  of  the  compound  type  with  the 
high  pressure  cylinder  n  inches  in  diameter,  the 
low  pressure  24  inches  and  the  stroke  of  the  piston 
1 8  inches,  with  a  maximum  steam  pressure  of  160 
pounds,  and  at  200  revolutions  per  minute,  each  unit 
would  develop  275  horse  power,  giving  a  total  horse 
power  of  550.  This  should  be  sufficient  to  drive 
the  boat  at  a  speed  of  16  miles  per  hour  if  the  hull 
is  properly  designed. 

The  auxiliaries  would  include  the  air  pumps  with 
vertical  twin  cylinders,  two  double-acting  1 2-inch 
water  cylinders  with  a  1 2-inch  stroke  and  two  feed 


244          FIRE   PREVENTION 

pumps  with  steam  cylinders  7^2  inches  in  diameter, 
water  cylinders  4^  inches  and  stroke  10  inches. 

Circulating  pumps  should  be  of  the  centrifugal 
type  driven  by  independent  engines,  and  should  have 
a  capacity  of  2,000  gallons  per  minute.  There 
should  be  a  condenser  of  cylindrical  shape  with 
brass  tubes  and  sheets,  and  having  a  cooling  surface 
of  2,800  square  feet. 

The  practice  of  using  one  of  the  feed  pumps  for 
a  bilge  pump  is  not  commendable;  there  should  be 
a  small  bilge  pump  for  this  work,  and  also  a  small 
pump  for  sanitary  purposes.  There  also  should 
be  an  independent  connection  between  the  fire  and 
bilge  pumps,  so  that  the  boat  could  be  pumped  out 
by  her  fire  pumps  in  case  of  accident.  This  connec- 
tion should  be  controlled  by  an  independent  gate 
valve. 

I  wish  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  the  practice  of 
employing  galvanised  iron  pipe  or  the  auxiliaries, 
or  for  other  purposes,  while  a  saving  in  the  first  cost, 
in  the  end  is  much  dearer  than  the  use  of  suitable 
brass  pipe;  the  iron  pipe  will  last  but  a  short  time 
in  salt  water,  and  the  cost  of  the  necessary  repairs 
in  five  years  would  be  far  greater  than  the  addi- 
tional initial  cost  of  brass  pipe.  Moreover,  the 
loss  entailed  by  the  absence  of  the  boat  during  the 


THE   MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    245 

time  that  she  is  out  of  service  for  these  repairs  can- 
not be  estimated;  a  fire-boat  should  be  kept  in  ser- 
vice as  many  days  of  the  year  as  possible.  On  the 
Great  Lakes  this  stricture  in  regard  to  the  piping 
would  not  apply  with  such  force;  iron  pipe  can  be 
used  very  well  in  fresh  water. 

An  efficient  winding,  steam-steering  engine  should 
be  located  in  the  engine  room  so  that  it  can  be  under 
direct  supervision  of  the  engineers;  the  connection 
with  the  steering  wheel  in  the  pilot  house  should  be 
by  steel  shafts,  and  cut  bronze  mitre  gears.  The 
cylinder  of  the  steering  engine  should  be  4^/2  x 
4^  inches.  The  hand  steering  wheels  should  pref- 
erably be  of  mahogany  with  brass  hubs  and  mount- 
ings; steering  columns  should  be  of  brass  with  rud- 
der, indicator,  and  warning  gongs. 

In  addition  to  the  steering  wheel  in  the  pilot  house 
there  should  be  a  second  wheel,  abaft  the  water 
tower  on  deck,  together  with  proper  signal  bell  pulls ; 
this  secondary  arrangement  is  to  enable  the  pilot 
to  work  the  boat  from  both  ends,  fore  and  aft. 
This  would  be  quite  an  aid  in  working  out  of 
crowded  slips  in  strong  tides,  or  currents.  In  addi- 
tion a  small  steam  capstan  can  be  placed  on  the  for- 
ward deck.  There  should  be  an  electric  lighting 
plant,  to  operate  about  seventy-five  16  candle  power 


246          FIRE    PREVENTION 

lamps,  and  also  a  searchlight.     This  would  require 
a  generator  of  about  10  kilowat  output.     The  mat- 
ter that  is  of  the  greatest  interest  to  firemen  is  that 
of  fire  pumps,  their  style   and  capacity;  needless  to 
say  the  success  of  the  boat  is  largely  dependent 
upon  them.     There  are  in  the  fire  service  several 
boats  with  reciprocating  pumps.     They  have  done, 
and  are  doing  good  work,  but  as  I  have  stated,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  obtain  boilers  able  to  supply  suf- 
ficient steam  to  operate  reciprocating  pumps  at  their 
full  capacity.     Pumps  having  a  normal  discharge  of 
say  10,000  gallons  per  minute,  based  on  predeter- 
mined piston  speed,  will  seldom  deliver  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  rated  quantity  under  working  con- 
ditions, because  the  boilers  cannot  supply  steam  suf- 
ficient to  produce  this  piston  speed,  and  because  of 
the  slip  which  increases  directly  as  the  speed  in- 
creases.    There  is  also  the  question  of  frequent  re- 
pairs after  every  working  period  of  any  duration. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  the  valves  re- 
quire no  little  attention,  as  the  pins  on  the  back  of  the 
suction  valves  corrode  quickly  in  harbours  full  of 
sewage,  and  allow  the  valves  to  drop  off. 

Centrifugal  pumps,  when  turbine-driven,  will  do 
the  same  work  with  half  the  steam  required  by 
reciprocating  units.  This  will  enable  the  boat  to 


•S  8, 


.2     bf 

i,     C 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    247 

manoeuvre  and  still  run  her  water  battery  to  the  full 
capacity;  a  condition  which  I  believe  does  not  exist 
on  any  fire-boat  in  the  service  at  the  preseant  time.  I 
therefore  believe  that  centrifugal  pumps  having  a 
capacity  of  8,000  gallons  of  salt  water  per  minute 
should  be  installed,  that  they  should  be  driven  by  tur- 
bine engines  of  the  impulse  type,  at  a  speed  of  1,800 
revolutions  per  minute. 

The  pumps  should  comprise  two  units,  each  unit 
including  a  two-stage,  direct  connected  turbine. 
The  turbine  should  be  of  the  horizontal  type, 
equipped  with  two  bearings,  and.  a  coupling  with  the 
pumps  coupled  direct  to  the  shaft,  and  operated  at 
the  same  speed  as  the  turbine  without  the  interven- 
tion of  any  form  of  gearing. 

Each  of  the  fire  pumps  should  have  a  1 4-inch  sea 
suction  pipe ;  the  outlets  should  be  provided  with  sea 
chests  having  composition  valves  and  glands,  tobin 
bronze  stems,  and  wheels  operated  from  the  working 
platform;  the  strainers  should  be  fitted  to  the  boat's 
side,  and  each  should  have  an  area  of  two  and  one- 
half  times  that  of  the  opening  in  the  valves.  They 
are  best  placed  just  over  the  turn  of  the  bilge,  far 
enough  from  the  bottom  to  avoid  mud  in  shallow 
water,  and  far  enough  below  the  water  line  to  avoid 
debris.  The  discharge  pipes  from  each  pump 


248          FIRE   PREVENTION 

should  be  14  inches  in  diameter  and  should  unite  in 
a  1 6-inch  main  above  the  pump;  each  discharge  into 
the  main  to  be  controlled  by  a  valve.  A  valve 
should  also  be  located  In  the  main  between  the  two 
pumps.  The  pumps  to  be  so  arranged  that  one  can 
discharge  into  the  other,  thereby  making  them  the 
equivalent  of  a  four-stage  pump,  when  extra  heavy 
pressure  is  required. 

On  the  deck,  above  the  pumps,  should  be  mounted 
two  composition  turrets  of  circular  section  with  oval 
tops,  standing  about  35  inches  high,  with  a  1 6-inch 
inlet  and  nine  3^-inch  outlets,  each  one  of  the  latter 
having  a  brass  gate  valve,  and  standard  hose  connec- 
tion. The  oval  turret  top  should  have  a  flange  for 
a  5-inch  gate  valve,  and  over  this  valve  should  be 
mounted  a  nozzle  of  approved  design.  The  cubic 
contents  of  each  turret  would  be  about  40  gallons. 

As  the  turret  is  a  feature  in  fire-boat  design  which 
has  been  in  use  for  a  limited  time,  it  may  be  well 
to  make  clear  its  virtues..  The  old  style  of  running 
a  water  circuit  around  the  boat  has  many  weak 
points.  It  adds  a  good  deal  of  weight.  The  cast 
iron  headers  are  constantly  blowing  out  and  the  work 
of  attending  lines  is  distributed  around  the  boat.  I 
found  it  necessary,  in  remodelling  one  of  New  York's 
fire-boats,  to  overcome  these  defects,  and  decided 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    249 

upon  the  turrets.  The  turret  construction  reduces 
friction,  does  away  with  a  heavy  water  circuit  run- 
ning around  the  boat;  it  concentrates  the  work,  and 
provides  two  excellent  nozzles  placed  directly  over, 
and  within  a  few  feet  of  the  pump. 

An  8-inch  line  controlled  by  a  gate  valve  should 
lead  from  the  1 6-inch  main  forward  to  the  underside 
of  the  pilot  house,  from  which  a  5-inch  branch 
should  be  carried  up  to  supply  the  nozzle  on  top  of 
the  house.  A  6-inch  branch  should  supply  the  bow 
nozzle,  and  a  6-inch  line,  led  aft,  should  supply 
the  nozzle  on  the  tower.  Each  turret  and  each  line 
of  pipe  leading  to  the  fixed  nozzles  should  have  a 
gate  valve,  leaving  a  clear  waterway  controlling 
them,  so  that  each  fire-fighting  unit  is  absolutely 
independent  of  the  others,  in  case  it  is  necessary 
to  undertake  repairs,  or  reconstruction.  All  valves 
6  inches  and  over,  should  be  of  the  rising  stem  type; 
in  this  type  the  valve  stem  and  nut  are  kept  from 
contact  with  the  water,  thereby  avoiding  sediment, 
and  incrustation.  The  ordinary  brass-mounted, 
cast  iron  valve  provided  with  composition  ring 
should  be  avoided,  as  the  iron  corrodes  rapidly, 
thereby  rendering  the  devices  inoperative.  Valves 
6  inches  and  over  should  each  be  fitted  with  a  by- 
pass or  arrangement  whereby  pressure  can  be  equal- 


250          FIRE   PREVENTION 

ised  on  both  faces  when  opening  them.  The  water 
tower  should  rise  about  27  feet  above  the  deck,  and 
be  provided  with  a  platform,  or  fighting  top,  so 
constructed  that  one  or  two  nozzles  can  be  conven- 
iently operated  by  men  standing  on  the  platform. 
The  nozzles  on  the  tower  have  been  found  most 
effective  in  fighting  fires  on  piers  with  upper  stories. 
A  better  range  can  be  obtained  with  the  elevated 
pipes  than  from  those  on  the  deck.  This  also  is 
true  of  warehouse  fires. 

There  should  be  two  reels  placed  on  deck  for 
carrying  3  ^2-inch  and  one  for  carrying  2  ^2-inch  hose. 
The  location  of  hose  reels  below  deck  is  impractic- 
able. Hose  is  heavy,  and  offers  sufficient  difficulty  to 
handle  on  deck;  when  placed  under  the  latter  it  be- 
comes extermely  hard  to  manipulate.  Furthermore, 
with  such  an  arrangement  great  delay  in  stretching  in 
at  fires  is  occasioned.  The  reels  should  work  on  rol- 
ler bearings,  provided  with  suitable  gear  to  permit 
two  men  to  handle  them  and  swing  them  on  a  turn- 
table. Experience  has  shown  that  two  sizes  of  hose, 
3^  inches  and  2^  inches,  are  sufficient.  The  first 
is  the  better  for  all-around  work;  hose  of  larger  size 
cannot  be  handled  with  celerity,  and  the  smaller  size 
is  unsuited  to  the  pumps.  A  powerful  stream  of 
water  can  be  forced  through  a  3^-inch  line  with  a 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    251 

1 24  or  2-inch  nozzle.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  re- 
duce the  line  for  inside  work  a  two-way  Siamese  con- 
nection with  2  ^2-inch  hose  and  I  J^-inch  nozzle  will 
give  two  good  streams. 

A  fire-boat  of  the  kind  described  should  carry  fifty 
lengths  of  3>^-inch  and  twenty-five  lengths  of  2^2- 
inch  hose;  the  prctice  of  uatilising  a  hose  wagon  in 
responding  to  stations  where  fire-boats  are  assigned 
is  a  good  one.  The  service  could  be  improved  by 
using,  as  auxiliary,  a  large  motor-driven  wagon, 
carrying  sixty  lengths  o  3 ^2-inch  hose  and  a  full  set 
of  reducers,  pipes,  pipe-holders,  etc.  This  practice 
is  now  followed  in  New  York. 

I  believe  that  the  best  arrangement  of  the  wagon 
for  carrying  hose  would  be  obtained  by  providing 
three  compartments;  twenty  lengths  of  hose  should 
be  arranged  in  each.  By  such  an  arrangement  three 
lines  could  be  stretched  at  one  time.  The  auxiliary 
wagon  or  boat  tender  should  remain  near  the  fire, 
and  in  this  way  all  the  tools  required  would  be 
brought  directly  to  the  men,  thereby  doing  away 
with  the  practice  of  running  back  to  the  boat  every 
time  a  nozzle,  reducer,  or  pipe-holder  is  required. 

The  threads  on  all  fixed  nozzles  should  be  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  fire  department  standard.  I 
mention  this  matter  of  standard  again  because  the 


252          FIRE   PREVENTION 

manufacturers  of  the  different  pipes  use  different 
threads;  in  consequence  the  tips  that  fit  one  pipe, 
will  not  fit  a  pipe  made  by  another  firm,  and  this  will 
cause  confusion  and  delay;  therefore  it  is  imperative 
that  all  tips  be  interchangeable. 

The  fire-boat  should  be  equipped  with  the  fol- 
lowing: 

One  2l/2-inch  to  i^-inch  controlling  nozzle. 
One  2^2-inch  to  i^-inch  controlling  nozzle. 
Four  2l/2-inch  to  i  ^4-inch  open  brass  nozzles. 
Four  3^-inch  to  i^-inch  open  brass  nozzles. 
Four  3^4-inch  to  i^-inch  open  brass  nozzles. 
Four  3^-inch  to  2-inch  open  brass  nozzles. 
Six  3^-inch  to  2^-inch  brass  reducers. 
Eighteen  3>2-inch  to  2^-inch  brass  reducers  for  turrets. 
One  double  female  connection. 
Three  2>l-inch  rail  pipes. 
Twelve  3^-inch  rail  pipes. 
Three  3>i-inch  hose  jackets. 
Three  2^-inch  cellar  pipes. 
One  y$  ton  chain  lift. 
One  i  ton  chain  lift. 
Six  3*/2-inch  piper-holders. 
Three  2r/2-mch  pipe-holders. 

One  full  set  of  machinist  and  pipe  fitter's  tools,  and  other 
equipment. 

The  subject  of  next  importance  in  connection  with 
a  city's  fire-boat  service  is  that  of  a  wharf  or  dock 
for  berthing  the  boat.  This  should  be  at  the  centre 
of  the  fire  zone  to  be  covered,  or  as  near  to  the 
centre  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  location.  The 
boat  should  be  moored,  bow  out,  in  a  berth  free 
from  all  obstructions  so  that  she  can  respond  in- 
stantly to  call.  Sufficient  wharfage  should  be  se- 


£ 

o 


£  I 


to 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    253 

cured  to  permit  the  erection  of  a  house  to  serve  as 
quarters  for  the  company;  a  good  frame  house  for 
this  purpose,  with  all  modern  improvements,  can 
be  built  for  about  $15,000,  and  a  house  of  much 
more  desirable,  slow-burning  or  fireproof  material 
for  a  few  thousand  dollars  more. 

The  general  arrangements  of  this  house  should  in- 
clude a  sitting  room,  with  a  desk  for  the  house- 
watchman,  telegraph,  telephone,  bath  room,  and 
office  on  first  floor,  dormitory,  officers'  rooms  on  the 
second  floor,  and  a  hose  tower  at  one  end.  The  gen- 
eral arrangements  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  quar- 
ters of  the  land  companies. 

In  the  important  matter  of  selecting  the  members 
of  the  company  care  should  be  taken  to  assign  men 
who  understand  a  boat,  and  who  have  had  experi- 
ence at  sea,  both  in  the  engine  room  and  on  deck. 
It  is  bad  policy  to  spend  a  large  sum  of  money  on 
the  construction  of  a  boat,  and  the  installation  of 
an  expensive  outfit,  and  then  have  it  fail  through 
lack  of  intelligent  operation.  The  captain  and  lieu- 
tenant should  not  only  be  good  firemen,  but  also 
good  boatmen.  The  pilots  should  be  men  of  long 
experience  in  the  waters  in  which  the  boat  is  to 
operate.  Good  pilots  will  keep  down  the  cost  of 
maintenance.  The  engineer  and  his  assistants 


254          FIRE    PREVENTION 

should  be  thoroughly  competent;  by  selecting  such 
men  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  boat  can  be  kept  down 
to  the  minimum.  If  other  methods  are  pursued  the 
cost  will  be  high,  and  the  boat  often  out  of  service. 
The  firemen  should  be  young  and  active ;  if  enough 
men  with  boat  experience  can  be  found  in  any  de- 
partment they  are  the  best  to  draft  into  this  branch 
of  the  service. 

The  boat  should  be  under  steam  at  all  times. 
This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  she  should  be 
blowing  off  steam.  But  a  steam  pressure  of  twenty 
pounds  below  the  tension  of  the  spring  of  the  safety 
valve  should  be  constantly  maintained.  The  pilot 
and  engineer  should  be  stationed  on  board.  On  re- 
ceipt of  an  alarm  at  night  the  first  thing  is  to  start  the 
dynamo,  or  under  the  law,  in  New  York  at  any  rate, 
the  boat  cannot  move  until  her  lights  are  properly  dis- 
played. In  the  daytime  this,  of  course,  is  unneces- 
sary. Then  the  air  and  circulating  pumps  should  at 
once  be  started,  and,  on  signal,  the  main  engines.  The 
turbines  should  be  warmed  up,  and  the  fire  pumps 
turned  over  dry.  On  deck,  hose  reels  should  be  un- 
covered. If  the  fire  is  within  striking  distance  of 
the  standpipes,  all  valves  on  the  pipes  to  be  used 
should  be  opened  when  the  boat  approaches  to  within 
one  thousand  feet  of  the  fire,  and  the  water  started 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    255 

as  soon  as  the  main  engines  are  slowed  down.  If 
it  be  a  pier  fire,  the  boat  should  be  moved  along  at 
a  moderate  speed  and  all  pipes  directed  into  the 
heart  of  the  fire.  This  is  the  time  that  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  boat  is  called  on  to  exercise  good  judg- 
ment; on  the  shore  side  there  are  chief  officers,  but 
conditions  may  be  such  that  they  cannot  get  orders 
to  the  boat;  hence  the  captain  of  the  vessel  must 
use  his  own  judgment  and  fight  his  boat  to  the  best 
of  his  ability. 

In  New  York,  where  there  is  a  fleet  of  ten  boats, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  organise  them  into  a 
homogeneous  unit,  a  Marine  Division.  The  result 
has  been  a  more  efficient  operation,  and  the  lessen- 
ing of  the  cost  of  maintenance.  The  chief  of  the 
marine  division  is  assigned  to  all  stations  where  a 
boat  is  assigned.  He  responds  to  fires  in  a  steam 
launch,  and  commands  on  the  wharf  side.  A  code 
of  operating  signals  has  been  established,  which  are 
sounded  on  the  siren  whistle.  In  this  way  orders 
are  transmitted  from  the  chief  over  a  considerable 
distance  even  if  the  smoke  be  heavy,  and  the  boat 
consequently  invisible.  The  chief  officer  on  shore 
can  also  be  communicated  with,  and  if  necessary, 
taken  on  board  by  means  of  the  steam  launch. 

No  specific  rules  can  be  laid  down  to  govern  the 


256          FIRE    PREVENTION 

important  matter  of  handling  boats  at  fires,  but  in 
all  cases  the  first  boat,  or  first  two  boats  to  arrive 
at  a  pier  fire  should  take  up  position  to  leeward,  and 
as  close  as  possible,  and  the  third  boat  to  windward, 
if  conditions  warrant  it.  Each  chief  knows  best 
the  conditions  under  which  he  is  working,  and  gov- 
erns himself  accordingly. 

Shore  lines  can  be  operated  successfully  at  a  dis- 
tance of  five  hundred  feet,  and  for  them  3^ -inch 
hose  with  i  J4  or  2-inch  nozzles  gives  the  best  results. 
A  good,  up-to-date  pipe-holder  should  be  used  in 
order  that  the  line  may  be  thoroughly  controlled, 
and  effectively  worked.  If,  through  accident  or  ca- 
tastrophe, the  water  service  of  a  city  should  become 
impaired,  a  fire-boat  company  could  stretch  lines  of 
two  thousand  feet  of  3^-inch  hose.  Each  of  these 
3^>-inch  lines  would  supply  two  fire  engines  of  the 
largest  size,  which  in  turn  could  pump  the  water 
one  thousand  two  hundred  feet  more.  This  would 
be  effected  by  putting  a  2-way  connection  on  the 
3^-inch  line,  with  a  male  connection,  the  main  line 
being  arranged  between  two  engines  close  enough 
to  enable  each  to  draw  from  it  with  its  suction,  or 
hydrant  connection,  and  in  this  manner  each  boat 
could  furnish  water  to  twelve  or  sixteen  engines.  It 
may  be  thought  that  two  thousand  feet  may  be  a 


THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    257 

great  distance  to  force  the  water  through  3^-inch 
hose,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  engines 
would  help,  as  they  would  create  a  vacuum  on  the  re- 
ceiving side  of  the  pump.  Thus  the  water  would 
have  very  little  atmospheric  resistance,  and  conse- 
quently would  be  forced  along  for  a  much  greater 
distance  than  if  discharged  through  a  small  nozzle 
against  the  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  question  of  supplying  high  pressure  mains 
laid  through  the  streets,  by  menas  of  fire-boats,  is 
an  open  one;  something  can  be  said  on  both  sides. 
If  a  boat  is  not  needed  for  other  work,  she  could  be 
used  for  forcing  water  through  the  mains  to  fires  at 
points  distant  from  her  station.  The  only  way  to 
furnish  an  ideal  high  pressure  system  is  to  build  a 
permanent  pumping  station  on  or  near  the  water 
front.  As  I  have  indicated  in  the  previous  chapter 
the  boat  could  be  used  in  an  emergency,  in  case  the 
permanent  station  is  out  of  service  or  to  supplement 
its  efforts.  But  to  depend  on  the  boat  entirely  is 
not  good  policy. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  cases  where  a  high  pressure 
system  of  this  character  is  contemplated,  a  1 6-inch 
main  could  be  laid  to  the  wharf  at  which  the  boat 
is  stationed;  this  would  enable  the  boat  to  supply 
the  system,  providing  the  territory  to  be  covered  was 


258  FIRE    PREVENTION 

not  too  great,  without  leaving  her  berth,  and  would 
mean  a  great  saving  of  time. 

In  regard  to  keeping  a  boat  in  commission  during 
a  rigid  winter  in  the  harbours  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
I  fear  I  am  not  a  competent  authority  to  judge, 
not  being  familiar  with  conditions  in  the  harbours 
of  cities  bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes.  I  can  tes- 
tify, however,,  that  in  New  York  no  trouble  is  ex- 
perienced, although  the  slips  are  very  often  filled 
with  heavy  ice. 

Only  an  approximate  idea  can  be  given  of  the  cost 
of  maintenance  of  a  fire-boat,  the  expense  and  lia- 
bility to  damage  depending,  naturally,  on  the  work 
performed. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  cost  of 
maintenance  of  one  of  the  New  York  Fire  Depart- 
ment boats : 

One  captain   $  2,500 

One  lieutenant   2,100 

Two  pilots  at  $1,500  each 3,ooo 

Four  engineers  at  $1,600 6,400 

Nine  firemen  at  $1,400 12,600 

Three  stokers  at  $3.00  per   day 3.285 

Coal    3,000 

Paints,  varnish,  turpentine,  etc 150 

Engine  and  cylinder  oils,  boiler  compound,  etc..  350 

Hardware,  brass  fittings,  etc 150 

Rope   ioo 

Packing,  gaskets,  etc ioo 

Docking,  scraping  and  painting 650 

General  repairs  ^°° 

Total  .  $34,885 


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THE    MODERN    FIRE-BOAT    259 

The  last  item,  that  of  general  repairs,  depends 
very  largely  upon  capable  handling;  a  collision  might 
cause  enormous  damage,  with  a  consequent  increase 
in  the  repair  charge.  In  general,  it  may  be  said, 
as  already  stated,  that  with  capable  men  in  each  posi- 
tion, the  cost  of  maintenance,  omitting  the  items  of 
wages  and  coal,  should  not  exceed  2  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  of  the  boat.  On  the  Lakes  the  item  of  dockage 
may  be  omitted;  a  boat  seldom  requires  docking  in 
fresh  water,  except  in  case  of  repairs.  In  salt  water 
it  fouls  very  quickly,  requiring  docking  twice  each 
year.  A  boat  such  as  has  been  described,  with  a 
full  equipment,  can  be  constructed  for  the  sum,  ap- 
proximately, of  $130,000. 

It  is  unfortunately  true  that  too  little  attention  has 
been  given  in  the  past  to  this  important  branch  of 
fire  service.  Chief  officers  from  coast  cities,  and 
cities  bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes,  should  make 
every  effort  to  provide  fire-boat  protection,  as  it  is 
the  only  effective  means  of  controlling  fires  along  the 
water  front.  No  city  having  an  extensive  water 
front  should  consider  its  fire  department  complete 
unless  it  is  supplied  with  an  adequate  number  of 
fire-boats. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HIGH  BUILDINGS  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION 

THE  tendency  of  the  present  day  to  build  high  and 
yet  higher  buildings  is  too  well  known  to  need  com- 
ment. The  rivalry  in  building  operations  seems  to 
have  changed  its  nature,  so  that  it  is  now  no  longer 
the  desire  to  cover  more  ground  than  one's  neighbour 
which  prompts  architect  and  owner,  but  the  desire 
to  send  his  structure  farther  skyward,  in  an  effort  to 
attain  the  skyscraper  record.  This  is  well  enough 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  economist  or  the  business 
man  who  does  not  look  further  than  the  immediate 
profit  which  he  is  to  obtain  from  a  given  piece  of 
land;  it  is  perhaps  commendable  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  appearance  of  the  city,  although  I  personally 
do  not  find  it  so,  but  it  is  deplorable  from  the  view- 
point of  the  fire-fighter,  the  believer  in  fire  preven- 
tion. 

From  this  standpoint  I  believe  that  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  there  should  be  a  limit  placed  on 
the  height  of  buildings  in  any  city,  and  that  this  limit 

260 


STEEL   CONSTRUCTION     261 

should  keep  them  far  within  the  stature  which  they 
have  attained  at  present  in  the  largest  cities  of  the 
country.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  with  every  story  that 
is  added  above  eight,  roughly  speaking,  or  with 
every  foot  that  is  added  above  eighty-five,  the  fire 
hazard  both  to  the  building  itself  and  to  its  neigh- 
bours is  increased  There  is  no  piece  of  apparatus  in 
any  fire  department  of  the  country  which  can  de- 
liver an  effective  stream  at  a  height  greater  than  one 
hundred  feet  from  the  street  Streams,  can,  of 
course,  be  thrown  to  a  height  greater  than  this,  as, 
for  instance,  from  a  high  pressure  hose  unattached 
to  any  apparatus,  but  these  streams  are  not  effective, 
from  a  fireman's  standpoint.  They  cannot  be  de- 
livered at  an  angle  which  will  throw  the  water  prop- 
erly upon  the  flames.  The  effective  stream  is  that 
which  is  thrown  horizontally,  or  nearly  so,  and  its 
effect  may  be  said  to  be  diminished  as  its  upward 
angle  is  increased. 

At  present,  water  towers  are  the  only  pieces  of  fire 
apparatus  intended  primarily  for  use  at  fires  in  high 
buildings.  The  largest  tower  made  will  send  in  its 
most  effective  stream  at  a  height  of  not  more  than 
eighty-five  feet.  The  same  height  is  also  the  limit 
of  present-day  extension  ladders  carried  on  trucks, 
and  while  a  few  feet  may  be  added  as  the  apparatus 


262  FIRE    PREVENTION 

is  perfected,  ladders  of  much  greater  height  than  this 
would  not  be  practical  even  if  they  could  be  raised, 
for  the  human  equation  of  men  to  climb  them  stead- 
ily and  rapidly  and  at  the  same  time  drag  up  the 
necessary  lines  of  heavy  hose,  would  then  come  in. 
It  would  require  a  department  composed  of  Titans, 
very  different  from  the  modern  student-fireman,  to 
do  any  sort  of  useful  work  on  such  ladders. 

It  is,  therefore,  safe  to  set  the  limit  of  effective 
fire-fighting  at  or  near  that  which  is  marked  by  the 
apparatus  of  the  present,  or  approximately  eighty- 
five  feet,  for  horizontal  streams.  Streams  which  do 
some  execution  can,  of  course,  be  directed  a  little 
higher  than  this,  up  to  perhaps  a  hundred  or  a 
hundred  and  ten  feet,  but  they  lose  much  of  their 
power  of  extinguishment  as  the  angle  of  play  is  in- 
creased, and  if  it  is  increased  up  to  a  certain  point 
they  become  almost  useless,  as  they  merely  enter  the 
windows  and  are  spent  against  the  ceilings  within  a 
few  feet  of  the  window  openings,  never  penetrating 
into  the  rooms  or  the  interior  of  the  building  which 
they  are  intended  to  reach,  save  perhaps  in  the  form 
of  spray.  It  is  obvious  that  such  streams  will  do 
little  good  in  quenching  the  flames.  Time  and  again 
I  have  seen  this  truth  exemplified  even  in  buildings 
which  were  in  no  sense  modern  skyscrapers;  thou- 


An  Example  of  Faulty  Construction 

This  column  in  the  Equitable  Building  cracked  after  losing 
its  protective  shell.  The  metal  at  the  right  hand  edge  of  the 
opening  was  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick. 


STEEL    CONSTRUCTION     263 

sands  of  gallons  of  water  have  been  poured  upward 
into  windows  merely  to  fall  on  and  flood  the  floor  or 
soak  the  ceilings  near  the  openings  without  reaching 
the  fire.  In  these  cases  it  was  necessary  to  carry 
lines  up  into  nearby  buildings  in  order  to  make  head- 
way against  the  fire. 

This  method  of  fighting  is  generally,  though  not 
always,  possible,  but  it  always  takes  a  great  deal  of 
valuable  time  to  stretch  lines  of  hose  up  the  many 
stones  in  the  interior  of  neighbouring  buildings, 
which  will  permit  the  direction  of  horizontal  streams 
into  the  burning  structure.  Moreover,  it  usually 
causes  unnecessary  damage  by  obliging  the  firemen  to 
break  into  buildings  which  would  otherwise  be  unaf- 
fected by  the  fire  and  run  the  risk  of  causing  water 
damage  in  them  by  reason  of  leaky  couplings  or 
bursting  hose.  This  unsatisfactory  method  is  the 
only  one  which  can  be  followed  in  a  great  number  of 
cases,  however,  and  many  fires  in  the  city  of  New 
York  and  elsewhere  have  been  extinguished  without 
further  spread  solely  because  they  have  been  fought 
from  neighbouring  structures,  whose  proximity  and 
convenient  location  was  a  matter  of  the  merest 
chance. 

Even  this  method  of  attack  is  plainly  futile  when 
the  firemen  are  called  upon  to  face  a  blaze  two  hun- 


264          FIRE   PREVENTION 

dred,  five  hundred  or  even  eight  hundred  feet  from 
the  sidewalk.  We  have  not  reached  an  era  of  build- 
ing in  which  there  are  convenient  neighbours  all 
about  structures  of  this  kind,  neighbours  of  equal  or 
sufficient  height,  and  I  hope  that  we  never  shall.  And, 
of  course,  even  were  the  burning  buildings  hemmed 
in  on  all  sides  by  other  buildings  high  enough  to 
make  it  possible  to  fight  the  flames  from  them  with 
hope  of  success,  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  get 
the  hose  lines  up  from  the  street  in  time  to  make 
them  useful,  and  once  they  were  there,  the  great  ele- 
vation to  which  the  water  would  have  to  be  forced  be- 
fore it  reached  the  nozzle  would  make  the  stream 
poor  and  feeble.  It  must  be  plain,  therefore,  that 
other  means  besides  reliance  on  neighbouring  build- 
ings must  be  provided  to  fight  the  foe  in  lofty  struc- 
tures out  of  reach  of  the  firemen  and  the  pressure 
available  in  any  city. 

The  best  solution  of  this  difficult  problem  which 
has  so  far  been  presented  is  to  fight  the  flames  by 
means  of  apparatus  within  the  tall  buildings  them- 
selves; sprinklers,  extinguishers  and  standpipes. 
The  last  are  excellent  aids  to  the  firemen  in  cases 
of  this  kind,  provided  certain  conditions  are  ful- 
filled. Two  of  these  conditions  are  vitally  necessary 
to  make  the  standpipes  of  use ;  first,  that  they  be  in 


STEEL   CONSTRUCTION     265 

good  condition  and  the  hose  attached  to  them  be  not 
rotten  or  worn  out,  and,  second,  that  they  can  be 
reached  by  the  firemen  before  the  flames  become 
too  hot  to  approach. 

In  many  of  our  taller  buildings  in  this  city  a  con- 
dition could  easily  exist  in  which  these  pieces  of  in- 
terior apparatus,  as  it  were,  would  be  of  not  the 
slightest  avail.  In  towers,  consisting  of  three  or 
four  rooms  and  a  hallway  containing  the  elevator 
shaft,  the  spread  of  flames  in  the  area,  usually  well 
supplied  with  inflammable  material,  such  as  furni- 
ture, carpets,  wooden  trim,  etc.,  would  be  rapid;  far 
too  rapid  in  many  cases  to  allow  the  fire-fighters  to 
reach  the  floor  in  time  and  get  the  hose  to  work,  of  if 
they  got  there  to  survive  the  rapidly  growing  heat  so 
that  they  might  put  up  any  sort  of  a  fight.  Of  course 
the  unfavourable  conditions  which  I  have  just  de- 
scribed do  not  exist  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and  the 
standpipes  can  usually  be  used  with  effect,  but  the 
chance  of  their  existence  is  nearly  always  present 
as  a  menace  to  the  building  and  its  neighbours,  and 
there  are  notable  cases  in  which  the  standpipe  has 
proved  its  inadequacy  when  the  emergency  came. 

Of  this  sort  was  the  fire  in  the  Equitable  Build- 
ing, which  I  have  cited  heretofore  as  an  example  of 
what  is  to  be  avoided.  There,  both  the  employees, 


266          FIRE    PREVENTION 

before  the  arrival  of  the  department,  and  the  fire- 
men, after  they  did  arrive,  relied  greatly  upon  the 
standpipes  to  quench  the  fire.  That  they  were  not 
sufficient  was  clearly  evidenced  by  the  burning  of  the 
building  at  a  loss  of  more  than  ten  million  dollars. 

The  solution,  then,  of  the  high  building  problem, 
does  not  lie  in  standpipes  and  interior  apparatus. 
These  are  often  helpful  and  of  good  service  and 
should  always  be  installed,  but  they  do  not  answer 
the  question  completely.  The  solution  lies  deeper 
than  any  of  these  things.  B'est  of  all,  to  put  it 
paradoxically,  cure  the  fire  evil  in  high  buildings. 
Limit  the  height  to  which  they  can  be  built  by  law 
and  keep  them  strictly  within  the  limits  of  effective 
fire-fighting  from  the  exterior.  A  city  so  con- 
structed would  go  far  toward  the  reduction  of  its  fire 
hazard  and  I  believe  would  lose  nothing  in  the  way 
of  artistic  appearance,  though  that,  of  course,  is  a 
matter  of  opinion.  However,  I  fear  that  no  such 
ideal  city  is  likely  to  be  built,  although  I  do  look  for 
some  restriction  upon  the  height  of  buildings  when 
experts  and  civic  authorities  come  to  consider  calmly 
the  great  risk  that  is  bound  up  in  excessive  height. 

A  more  practical  consideration  is,  what  shall  be 
done  to  protect  the  high  buildings  which  we  now 
have  and  which  are  about  to  be  built,  so  as  to  pre- 


STEEL   CONSTRUCTION     267 

vent  their  own  destruction  and  the  risk  of  conflagra- 
tion of  which  some  of  them  form  the  central  point? 
The  answer  to  this  problem  lies  in  fireproof  con- 
struction. Let  me  make  it  clear  once  more  that  by 
fireproof  construction  I  mean  fireproof  construction, 
or  construction  as  nearly  unburnable  as  it  has  yet 
been  possible  for  man  to  devise.  This  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  reducing  the  risk,  the  fire  hazard,  in 
buildings  great  and  small,  but  is  especially  applicable 
to  the  tall  skyscraper,  the  very  nature  and  height  of 
which  makes  it  inaccessible  for  ordinary  fire-fight- 
ing purposes.  And  this  term  fireproof  must  not  in 
these  cases  be  applied  to  the  shell  of  the  building 
alone.  Indeed,  it  can  never  be  properly  so  applied. 
It  refers  to  the  buildings  as  a  whole,  to  fittings  and 
trims  as  well  as  to  wall  and  beam. 

Perhaps  one  should  be  even  more  careful,  if  any- 
thing, about  the  non-combustible  nature  of  the  in- 
terior finish  of  a  building  than  about  its  outer  walls, 
for  it  is  in  the  interior  that  nearly  all  fires  start.  I 
would  not  be  understood  to  decry  fundamental  fire- 
proof construction;  far  from  it.  Steel  construction 
of  the  present  day,  the  wonderful  net  work  of  steel 
girders,  supports  and  beams,  joined  into  a  gigantic 
frame  by  hot  rivets,  which  has  come  to  be  the 
familiar  type  of  large  building,  and  especially  tall 


268  FIRE    PREVENTION 

building  construction,  is  admirable  from  the  fire 
standpoint.  That  is  to  say  it  is  admirable  if  it  is 
properly  done.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  poor  material 
or  imperfect  workmanship  is  dangerous.  But  in  the 
normal  case,  where  the  steel  is  of  standard  quality 
and  the  great  ribs  of  the  building  are  carefully  put 
together,  it  forms  well-nigh  ideal  building.  One 
thing  should  always  be  remembered,  however.  Steel 
or  iron  supports  or  beams  should  never  be  left  ex- 
posed, or  without  some  form  of  protective  covering. 
If  they  are,  they  readily  absorb  the  heat  of  a  fire  and 
are  then  in  a  highly  dangerous  condition,  for  a 
stream  of  water  striking  them  in  this  condition  will 
cause  instant  buckling  or  warping,  disturbing  the 
alignment  and  bearing  of  the  metal  and  often  caus- 
ing serious  settling  or  even  collapse  of  the  whole 
structure.  Even  without  contact  with  a  stream  of 
water  these  supports  will  buckle  and  sag  if  they  get 
too  hot. 

The  great  step  for  safety,  however,  lies  in  going 
on  with  the  use  of  steel  and  carrying  it  into  the  com- 
position not  only  of  the  framework  and  skeleton  of 
the  building,  but  also  into  the  interior  finish  and 
trim.  This,  I  am  thankful  to  say,  is  being  done 
more  and  more.  Window  frames,  door  casings, 
surbases  and  doors  themselves  made  entirely  of  steel 


The  Effect  of  Water  on  a  Hot  Steel  Girder 
The  buckle  shown  indicates  that  the  whole  structure  above 
has  settled  several  inches     Such  construction  causes  loss  of  life 
through    unforeseen   collapse. 


STEEL   CONSTRUCTION     269 

are  now  to  be  found  in  the  best  modern  skyscrapers. 
The  hollow  steel  door  of  good  make  is  an  ideal  fire 
stop;  it  is  a  splendid  form  of  fire  insurance,  going 
deeper  than  insurance  itself,  by  presenting  an  uncon- 
querable front  to  the  enemy  and  putting  a  real 
barrier  in  the  way  of  the  flames.  I  wish  every  large 
building  and  every  high  building  in  the  country  were 
equipped  with  steel  doors  of  the  hollow  type.  Fit 
supplements  of  these  excellent  doors  are  the  other 
forms  of  metal  finish  or  fitting.  Window  frames 
should  always  be  of  unburnable  material,  and  now 
that  steel  furniture  is  made  and  finished  so  artfully 
as  to  deceive  even  the  expert  into  thinking  it  of  wood 
until  he  tests  it  by  percussion  with  some  metal  object, 
there  is  no  valid  reason  why  the  great  danger  of  the 
modern  office  building  or  other  lofty  structure,  its 
contents,  should  not  be  fireproof  as  well  as  its  shell. 
Even  if  this  ideal  condition  is  not  attained,  much 
protection  can  be  secured  by  making  it  impossible  for 
a  fire  to  spread  further  than  the  room  in  which  it 
originates.  A  most  remarkable  exemplification  of 
this  fact  came  to  my  attention  in  the  autumn  of  1910. 
I  was  at  that  time  Chief  of  the  New  York  Fire  De- 
partment, and  I  had  occasion  to  inspect  the  premises 
after  the  fire  and  the  materials  which  confined  it  so 
successfully  to  one  room.  The  fire  occurred  in  the 


270          FIRE   PREVENTION 

Singer  Building  at  No.  149  Broadway  one  morning 
in  September.  The  room  unfortunately,  or  for- 
tunately, perhaps,  for  the  sake  of  the  demonstration 
it  afforded,  was  filled  with  combustible  material.  It 
was  on  the  twenty-sixth  story  of  the  skyscraper  and, 
of  course,  far  above  the  reach  of  any  fire  depart- 
ment apparatus.  When  the  fire  was  first  discovered 
the  room  was  already  a  mass  of  flames.  Under  old 
conditions  there  would  have  been  little  hope  for  the 
building,  for  its  height  and  form  would  have  made 
it  a  veritable  flue  and  it  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  seriously  damaged,  or  even  destroyed,  while  the 
firemen  looked  on  powerless  to  play  any  important 
part  in  checking  the  spread  of  the  fire.  The  build- 
ing was  fireproof  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  how- 
ever; it  had  the  best  sort  of  steel  doors  and  trim, 
and  for  this  reason  the  fire  was  confined  to  the  room 
in  which  it  started  and  burned  itself  out  before  the 
firemen  had  more  than  arrived  on  the  scene.  It 
was  a  never-to-be-forgotten  lesson  in  the  value  of 
proper  construction. 

This  instance  served  to  strengthen  my  conviction 
of  the  great  importance  of  fire  prevention  as  com- 
pared with  fire  extinguishment.  Foresight  and  true 
economy  had  saved  the  day,  for  if  the  building  had 
been  of  the  familiar  construction,  in  which  wooden 


STEEL    CONSTRUCTION     271 

trim  was  allowed  to  nullify  the  advantages  of  a  well- 
built  exterior,  the  damage  would  have  exceeded,  in 
all  human  probability,  the  cost  of  every  bit  of  steel 
trim  and  every  steel  door  in  the  building.  It  was  a 
case  of  a  stitch  in  time  saving  nine.  This,  then,  is 
the  solution  of  the  high  building  problem: — steel 
construction  inside  as  well  as  out,  fireproof  parti- 
tions and  doors,  fireproof  floors  and  ceilings,  the 
absolute  prohibition  of  wood  wherever  it  is  possible. 
For  the  palatial  residence  or  the  small  home  this 
complete  elimination  of  wood  is  possible  also.  The 
demand  of  beauty,  the  desire  for  handsome  furni- 
ture and  carved  woodwork,  the  matters  in  which 
taste  holds  sway,  outweigh  with  some  persons  the 
desire  to  live  in  a  building  which  contains  nothing 
burnable,  but  for  the  office  building  there  is  no  such 
excuse.  As  I  have  already  said,  even  furniture  of 
handsome  design  and  artistic  finish  may  now  be  had 
in  fireproof  materials,  while  trim  and  doors  of  steel 
are  as  suitable  and  of  as  good  appearance  as  those 
of  wood.  There  remains,  therefore,  no  reason, 
save  one  of  initial  cost,  why  they  should  not  be  in- 
stalled in  every  building  throughout  the  land,  and 
I  believe  the  day  will  come  when  building  owners 
and  constructors  will  realise  that  they  are  serving 
their  own  best  interests,  even  from  the  point  of  view 


272          FIRE   PREVENTION 

of  the  pocketbook,  when  they  waive  the  greater  orig- 
inal cost  of  the  right  kind  of  material  in  favour  of  the 
great  ultimate  saving  which  it  is  sure  to  prove  when 
the  flames  come  to  test  the  quality  of  the  edifice 
which  they  have  erected. 


CHAPTER    XV 

FIRE    PREVENTION   BUREAUS    AND    FIRE    MARSHALS 

As  a  complement  or  supplement  to  every  city  fire 
department  there  should  be  two  investigating  de- 
partments of  a  subsidiary  nature,  bureaus,  as  it  were, 
of  the  department  itself.  One  of  these  bureaus 
should  have  the  duty  of  watching  out  for  and  guard- 
ing against  fire  before  it  occurs,  to  be  known  as  the 
fire  prevention  bureau.  The  other  should  be  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  looking  into  the  cause  of  fire  after 
it  occurs  and  placing  the  blame  for  its  occurrence,  if 
there  be  any  violations,  negligence  or  incendiarism, 
known  as  the  fire  marshal's  bureau.  From  the 
nature  of  their  functions  these  two  bureaus  exercise 
entirely  independent  duties  and  they  should  not  be 
confused  or  amalgamated.  One  is  in  the  nature  of 
a  watchman;  the  other  in  the  nature  of  an  investi- 
gator. 

Nearly  all  large  cities  and  some  States  now  have 
fire  marshals  whose  work  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance and  whose  service  is  extremely  valuable  to  the 

273 


274          FIRE    PREVENTION 

community.  Of  their  functions  and  the  possibilities 
of  their  office  I  shall  speak  later  on.  Just  now  I  am 
concerned  with  bureaus  of  fire  prevention,  which,  as 
yet,  are  by  no  means  as  generally  found  in  large 
cities  of  the  country  as,  but  which  are,  if  anything, 
even  more  vitally  needed  than  the  fire  marshals.  In 
the  past  the  marshal  has  exercised  some  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  prevention  bureau,  because  he  was  the 
only  officer  who,  in  the  default  of  such  a  bureau, 
could  exercise  them.  But  this  is  not  as  it  should  be, 
and  I  firmly  believe  that  the  time  is  at  hand  when 
every  large  city  will  have  a  body  of  men,  propor- 
tioned to  population  and  risks,  whose  activities  will 
be  entirely  confined  to  fire  prevention.  This  is  a 
highly  desirable  state  of  things,  and  I  trust  that  it 
will  shortly  be  found,  in  all  the  cities  of  congested 
population  and  special  hazard  at  least. 

What,  then,  should  be  the  composition  and  work 
of  such  a  bureau?  In  the  first  place,  there  need 
be  no  special  sanctity  about  the  name  which  I  have 
given  it.  It  may  properly  be  called  by  any  name 
the  municipality  may  select,  be  it  fire  prevention 
bureau  or  what  not,  as  long  as  its  function  is  to 
guard  against  the  fire  hazard  and  see  that  improper 
conditions  are  reported  and  proper  conditions  pro- 
claimed, before  the  fire  takes  place. 


FIRE    MARSHALS  275 

It  should  be  composed  of  trained  men;  men  who 
understand  the  fire  hazard  from  many  angles,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  those  of  construction,  over- 
crowding, accessibility,  interior  fire  appliances  and 
method  of  protection.  Usually  the  best  men  for 
such  work  are  firemen,  who  are  either  specially  de- 
tailed for  this  work  or  who  are  veterans  of  the  fire 
department.  By  veterans  I  do  not  mean  super- 
annuated or  crippled  men  who  are  no  longer  fit  to 
serve  as  firemen,  but  men  who  have  been  trained  in 
the  actual  school  of  fire-fighting  at  first  hand  and 
know  the  requirements  of  a  building  from  the  fire- 
fighter's standpoint.  There  are  in  every  city  plenty 
of  such  men  to  be  had  and  they  form  ideal  material 
for  the  body  which  is  to  do  the  practical  work  of  fire 
prevention.  This  is  a  branch  of  the  fire  department 
in  which  knowledge  and  training  are  sure  to  count, 
and  men  should  be  thoroughly  tested  for  fitness  be- 
fore they  are  appointed  inspectors  of  such  a  bureau. 

Moreover,  there  should  be  plenty  of  them  to  do 
the  work  completely  and  thoroughly,  for  too  small  a 
body  will  have  a  tendency  to  hasty  inspection  which 
may  prove  the  undoing  of  the  entire  purpose  of  the 
work  when  the  crisis  comes.  The  salaries  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  men,  properly  selected  for 
this  important  work,  will  prove  a  good  investment 


276          FIRE   PREVENTION 

for  the  city,  and  parsimony  In  this  matter  is  almost 
sure  to  prove  false  economy  in  the  end.  Here,  as 
in  so  many  branches  of  fire  protection  and  fire  pre- 
vention, one  must  spend  in  order  to  save. 

Once  such  a  bureau  has  been  properly  constituted, 
the  next  question  is  of  its  duty  and  scope.  Its  in- 
spectors should  make  a  close  physical  inspection  of 
all  buildings  In  the  city.  For  this  purpose  the  city 
should  be  divided  into  small  districts.  Perhaps  the 
work  of  the  inspectors  can  best  be  described  by  tak- 
ing the  case  of  an  individual  inspector  and  an  In- 
dividual building. 

Let  us  say  that  Inspector  A  is  assigned  to  a  cer- 
tain district  in  which  he  finds  a  large  loft  building. 
Before  he  has  finished  with  the  building  there  should 
be  nothing  he  does  not  know  about  it  and  its  con- 
tents. He  should  learn  its  construction  and  the 
nature  of  the  materials  which  are  in  it;  its  height  and 
ground  area;  the  room  area  and  hall  area  of  each 
floor;  the  position,  number  and  carrying  capacity  of 
the  elevators;  the  nature  of  the  interior  fittings;  the 
number  of  persons  housed  upon  each  floor  and  their 
occupations;  the  language  of  the  employees,  if  there 
is  any  sort  of  manufacturing  business  being  carried 
on;  the  hours  of  work  and  the  kind  of  power  used; 
the  location,  construction  and  capacity  of  the  stair- 


FIRE    MARSHALS  277 

ways;  the  kind,  extent  and  condition  of  the  sprinkler 
system,  if  there  be  one;  the  number  of  standpipes 
and  their  location;  the  kind  of  material  that  is  stored 
or  used  in  the  building  or  any  part  of  it;  the  posi- 
tion and  class  of  fire-escapes  and  roof  exits,  as  well 
as  the  means  of  getting  to  neighbouring  structures  in 
time  of  need  by  way  of  the  roof;  the  nature  of  the 
hazard  from  neighbouring  or  nearby  buildings,  if 
any,  and  the  character  and  history,  as  far  as  possible, 
of  the  owners,  lessees  and  employees  interested  in  it, 
together  with  the  insurance  carried. 

In  addition,  the  inspector  should  see  whether 
there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  fire  extinguishers  and 
alarm  boxes  of  the  manual  type;  know  how  many 
watchmen  are  employed  and  what  their  rounds  are 
and  ascertain  the  location  of  the  nearest  street  fire 
alarm  box.  All  of  these  matters  he  should  embody 
in  a  report  for  which  there  should  be  blank  forms 
printed  and  kept  in  the  office  of  the  bureau,  and  this 
report  should  then  be  placed  on  file  and  indexed  so 
that  it  may  be  readily  reached  and  corrected  from 
time  to  time.  In  it  should  be  embodied  not  only  the 
vital  facts  which  I  have  enumerated,  but  also  any 
other  matter  of  interest  from  the  fire  prevention 
standpoint  which  the  inspector  may  have  observed  in 
the  course  of  his  inspection.  This  is  a  point  to  be 


278          FIRE   PREVENTION 

emphasised,  for  trained  men  of  this  sort  can  fre- 
quently be  of  service  outside  the  routine  line  of 
their  duty  by  making  note  and  suggestion  for  im- 
provements in  regulations  and  little  safeguards 
which  may  prove  to  be  of  immense  value.  The 
men  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  watch  for  chances 
to  make  such  helpful  suggestions,  and  any  that  may 
be  deemed  useful  by  the  proper  authorithy  should 
bring  recognition  and  reward  or  advancement  to 
their  authors. 

The  case  I  have  chosen  as  an  example  is  but 
typical  of  the  work  the  inspectors  should  do  in  any 
kind  of  building,  great  or  small.  No  stone  should 
be  left  unturned  in  an  effort  to  have  a  complete 
knowledge  of  existing  conditions,  for  in  this  way 
alone  can  a  really  effective  safeguard  for  the  city 
be  devised.  It  would  be  hard  indeed  to  have  too 
much  inspection.  The  trouble  usually  is  that  there 
is  far  too  little,  and  for  this  reason  the  work  of  this 
special  bureau  should  not  be  regarded  in  any  way 
as  a  substitute  for  the  inspection  which  is  in  the  line 
of  duty  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  regular  depart- 
ment and  which  had  been  outlined  in  a  previous 
chapter.  Rather  it  should  be  entirely  independent 
of  that  inspection  and  act  as  an  addition  to  it,  so 
that  it  may  profitably  be  used  for  checking  and  com- 
parison. 


Riven  and  Weakened 
Note  the  heavy  floor  load. 


FIRE    MARSHALS  279 

Wherever  violations  of  one  kind  or  another  are 
found  they  should  at  once  be  reported  to  the  bureau 
and  it  should  have  the  power  to  order  them  rectified 
forthwith,  and  enforce  its  order  by  a  proper  measure 
of  police  power.  In  this  way  the  fire  prevention 
bureau  would  soon  become  a  very  real  force  for 
good  in  the  community  and  would  be  held  in  respect- 
ful dread  by  all  who  had  reason  to  fear  its  inspection. 
It  would  thus  act  as  a  deterrent  influence  on  those 
who  were  disposed  to  evade  the  law  or  the  regula- 
tions of  the  fire  department,  even  before  it  was 
actually  called  upon  to  act. 

But  the  work  of  the  fire  prevention  bureau  should 
not  stop  there.  It  should  also  be  engaged  in  draft- 
ing and  revising,  when  necessary,  the  proper  regula- 
tions in  all  matters  appertaining  to  the  fire  hazard. 
These  regulations  should  be  issued  from  time  to 
time  as  may  be  found  expedient,  care  being  taken  to 
make  as  few  minor  changes  and  variations  as  possi- 
ble, and  thus  to  avoid  the  confusion  which  is  sure  to 
arise  when  orders  are  too  frequent  or  too  variable. 
It  should  also  prepare  the  text,  or  even  the  actual 
notices  themselves,  of  the  regulations  as  to  exits,  fire- 
escapes,  smoking,  etc.,  which  are  to  be  posted  in 
buildings  of  various  kinds.  These  notices  should  be 
clearly  legible,  in  large  type  and  concisely  worded, 
so  that  there  may  be  no  doubt  about  their  lucidity! 


280          FIRE   PREVENTION 

They  should  preferably  be  printed  in  red  or  some 
other  conspicuous  colour,  and  should,  wherever  nec- 
essary, be  translated  into  one  or  more  foreign  lan- 
guages, to  appear  on  the  same  card  as  the  English 
version.  The  inspectors  of  the  bureau  should  then 
be  charged  with  the  duty  of  seeing  that  these  notices 
are  issued  to  building  owners  and  lessees,  and  that 
they  are  not  carelessly  thrown  away,  but  properly 
posted  in  locations  where  no  tenant  or  worker  in 
the  building  can  fail  to  see  them.  Among  other 
things,  such  notices  should  give  the  direction  of  the 
nearest  stairway  and  elevator,  the  nearest  fire-escape 
and  the  most  conveniently  located  alarm  box  and 
extinguisher. 

Careful  organisation  within  the  bureau  itself 
should  be  encouraged,  for  it  will  lead  to  more  effi- 
cient work.  I  am  a  believer  in  semi-military  or- 
ganisations in  all  matters  in  relation  to  the  fire  de- 
partment, and  I  see  no  reason  why  there  should  not 
be  something  of  the  same  kind  within  this  bureau  of 
the  department.  The  inspectors  should  have  a  chief 
inspector  over  them,  with  assistants,  if  the  size  of 
the  body  makes  them  necessary,  and  a  spirit  if  dis- 
cipline should  be  inculcated.  This  will  be  found  all 
the  more  easy  if  former  members  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment, from  the  active  list,  are  appointed  inspectors, 


FIRE    MARSHALS  281 

for  these  men  are  already  trained  to  obedience  and 
order  as  well  as  neat  and  careful  work.  As  in  the 
active  department  there  should  be,  I  think,  a 
separate  office  force  to  do  the  clerical  work  of  cor- 
respondence, filing  and  recording. 

I  now  come  to  an  important  feature  of  such  a 
bureau,  if  it  is  to  be  a  true  success :  namely,  the  au- 
thority under  which  it  is  to  do  its  work.  My  theory 
in  regard  to  this  will  not  meet  with  the  approval  of 
some  persons,  I  feel  sure,  but  I  am  convinced  of  its 
correctness  none  the  less.  I  do  not  feel  that  the  fire 
prevention  bureau  should  be  entirely  Answerable 
to  the  Fire  Commissioner  or  Board  of  Commission- 
ers, or  whatever  similar  executive  individual  or 
board  constitutes  the  head  of  the  department.  This 
officer,  in  all  cases  an  appointee  of  the  Mayor,  Alder- 
men or  Council,  or  else  an  elected  officer  of  the  city, 
is  not  fitted,  save  in  rare  and  fortunate  cases,  either 
by  training  or  experience,  to  take  control  of  this 
body  in  the  sense  of  being  its  active  head.  He  can- 
not understand  the  details  of  the  work  which  the 
bureau  should  do  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  prac- 
tical man  who  is  prepared  if  necessary  to  do  the 
work  of  one  of  the  inspectors  himself,  for  if  he  had 
this  work  to  do,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hun- 
dred he  would  not  have  the  faintest  idea  where  to 


282          FIRE   PREVENTION 

begin.  A  trained  and  experienced  man  is  an  es- 
sential in  this  position. 

Moreover,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  chief  danger  in 
the  matter,  such  an  appointive  or  elective  officer  is 
in  nearly  all  cases  closely  connected  with  politics. 
If  he  is  appointed  it  is  by  an  executive  elected  by 
one  or  another  party;  if  he  is  elected,  then  he  is, 
of  course,  in  a  sense  the  creature  of  a  party.  There- 
fore he  will  almost  unavoidably  have  strong  party 
affiliations  and  be  deeply  interested  in  politics. 
Politics  and  the  fire  department,  or  any  branch  of  it, 
should  be  as  widely  separated  as  the  poles,  however, 
and  it  is  the  duty  of  every  city  to  see  that  politics  is 
kept  out  of  this  department  as  rigidly  as  may  be, 
even  if  it  is  not  kept  out  of  any  other.  I  have  seen 
too  much  of  the  influence  of  politics  in  New  York 
City  not  to  know  how  dangerous  it  may  become  to 
the  well-being  of  the  fire  department  and  how 
strongly  its  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  the  depart- 
ment should  be  opposed. 

With  the  fire  prevention  bureau,  the  same  thing 
holds  good.  The  inspectors  should  never  be  politi- 
cal appointees  for  any  reason  or  on  any  excuse,  but 
should  be  chosen  solely  for  their  fitness  and  training 
for  the  work.  Once  appointed  they  should  never 
feel  under  the  sway  of  politics,  as  they  must  if  they 


FIRE    MARSHALS  283 

are  directly  answerable  to  a  political  Commissioner, 
but  should  be  entirely  free  of  all  influences  of  the 
kind.  And  it  is  for  this  reason  chiefly,  that  I  would 
not  recommend  the  Fire  Commissioner  or  Board  as 
the  head  of  the  bureau.  It  is  perhaps  proper  to 
allow  him  voice  in  its  direction,  just  as  he  must  have 
voice  in  the  direction  of  the  fire-fighting  force  to  a 
certain  extent,  but,  as  in  the  latter  case,  his  authority 
should  not  be  absolute  or  single,  but  should  be 
coupled  with  that  of  the  Chief  of  Department. 

This  officer  is  ideally  fitted,  in  most  cities,  to  take 
the  active  management  of  the  prevention  bureau — I 
do  not  mean  that  he  should  himself  direct  all  its 
details  or  take  a  part  in  its  routine — but  that  to  him 
should  be  referred  the  violations  discovered  and  the 
questions  of  regulation  which  come  up.  He  should 
be  the  ultimate  authority  of  at  least  equal  power 
with  the  Commissioner.  The  reason  for  this  is  not 
far  to  seek.  If  he  has  attained  his  position  as 
Chif  of  Department  as  he  should  attain  it,  that  is  to 
say  by  promotion  from  the  ranks  and  through  the 
various  grades  of  the  department,  he  is  the  man 
best  fitted  by  experience  and  training  in  the  whole 
city  to  understand  the  needs  of  buildings  and  the 
things  that  are  proper  and  improper  in  them  from 
the  fire  standpoint.  He  has  been  in  thousands  of 


284          FIRE    PREVENTION 

fires  and  has  put  them  out.  He  has  inspected  tens 
of  thousands  of  buildings  with  precisely  the  object 
that  governs  the  inspectors  of  the  bureau,  and  he 
has  taken  note  of  the  conditions  that  exist  and  the 
remedies  that  should  be  applied.  If  he  is  a  Chief 
worthy  of  the  name,  he  is  a  good  deal  of  a  practical 
fire  prevention  engineer,  and  if  he  is  not,  the  sooner 
the  department  is  rid  of  him  the  better  for  the  city 
and  its  safety. 

It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  in  so  far  as  training  and 
practical  fitness  are  concerned,  he  is  the  man  to  head 
the  prevention  bureau.  But  there  is  another  reason 
why,  in  my  opinion,  he  should  occupy  this  position. 
He  is  not  concerned  with  politics.  If,  therefore,  his 
is  to  be  the  selection  of  the  inspectors  of  the  bureau, 
the  appointments  are  almost  certain  to  be  free  from 
political  bias  and  made  on  merit.  And  if  one  of 
those  inspectors  reports  a  violation  on  a  certain 
building  and  this  violation  is  not  rectified  promptly, 
so  that  the  matter  comes  before  his  notice,  he  will 
not  be  influenced  by  the  exertion  of  political  pull 
either  to  permit  delay  or  to  permit  the  building  to 
remain  in  its  unsafe  condition,  because  the  owner  or 
the  lessee  is  somebody  high  in  the  party  councils, 
and  "  it  would  be  better,  for  his  own  sake,  to  let 
the  matter  drop."  On  the  contrary,  he  will  see  that 


FIRE    MARSHALS  285 

the  regulations  are  complied  with  at  once  and,  in 
so  far,  will  be  able  to  perform  a  real  service  for  the 
city  in  which  he  holds  a  position  of  responsibility  and 
trust. 

For  the  best  good  of  the  city,  the  duties  of  the 
fire  marshal,  who  in  the  past  has  had,  of  necessity, 
to  perform  in  any  of  the  functions  of  the  fire  pre- 
vention bureau,  should  be  entirely  distinct  from  those 
of  that  bureau.  It  should  not  be  his  function  to  in- 
spect premises  before  the  occurrence  of  fire,  or  to 
draw  up  the  regulations  which  are  laid  down  for 
buildings  of  various  sorts,  although,  from  the  nature 
of  his  work  and  experience,  he  is  usually  fitted  to 
act  in  a  useful  advisory  capacity  in  this  latter  mat- 
ter. Qfn  the  contrary,  his  duties  begin  after  the  ex- 
tingui^iment  of  the  fire,  and  they  are  hardly  less  im- 
portant than  those  of  the  prevention  bureau,  in  spite 
of  this  difference. 

Little  can  be  done  to  prevent  fire  until  much  is 
known  about  the  cause  of  fire,  and  it  is  just  here 
that  the  fire  marshal  plays  his  important  part.  It 
should  be  his  duty  to  make  a  rigid  investigation  into 
every  fire  which  occurs  within  his  jurisdiction;  learn 
all  that  is  possible  about  the  conditions  in  the  prem- 
ises before  it  started — and  in  this  he  can  receive 
much  aid  and  counsel  from  the  prevention  bureau — 


286          FIRE   PREVENTION 

and,  after  careful  deliberation,  assign  a  cause  as 
accurately  as  may  be.  To  the  uninitiated  it  may 
sound  like  an  absurdity  to  speak  of  assigning  a  cause 
for  a  fire  which  has  consumed  an  entire  building  and 
left  but  a  heap  of  ruins,  but  this  is  not  nearly  as 
absurd  an  idea  as  it  appears  to  be.  By  putting  to- 
gether the  bits  of  evidence  which  he  discovers,  the 
experienced  fire  marshal  can  reconstruct  the  progress 
of  many  a  fire  that  would  seem  altogether  baffling 
to  the  layman.  It  is  work  that  requires  great  care 
and  thoroughness,  as  well  as  no  little  special  train- 
ing and  experience  with  fire,  and  it  is  so  important 
to  the  cause  of  fire  protection  and  fire  prevention  that 
too  great  care  cannot  be  exercised  by  any  city  in  the 
selection  of  its  fire  marshal  and  his  staff.  I  have 
seen  some  remarkable  cases  of  detective  work  per- 
formed by  this  officer  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

One  important  reason  for  the  remarkable  fact 
that  the  fire  loss  in  Europe  is  about  one-seventh  of 
that  in  this  country  per  capita,  is  undoubtedly  the 
greater  attention  which  has  been  paid  to  investigat- 
ing the  causes  of  fires  across  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  authorities  toward  fire  in  general. 
In  European  countries  in  most  cases,  to  have  fire  on 
one's  premises  is  to  commit  a  crime.  The  burden 
of  proof  is  upon  the  householder  or  the  landlord 


FIRE    MARSHALS  287 

to  show  that  a  fire  on  his  premises  was  no  fault  of 
his.  In  other  words,  he  is  deemed  guilty  until  he 
has  proved  himself  innocent.  If  he  fails  in  this 
proof,  he  must  be  prepared  to  pay  a  substantial  fine 
or  serve  a  prison  term.  As  may  be  appreciated,  this 
attitude  has  a  remarkable  effect  upon  the  number  of 
fires,  with  a  consequent  welcome  reduction  in  the  fire 
loss.  Nowhere  is  it  more  marked  than  in  Germany, 
the  land  of  thoroughness.  An  illustration  is  a  case 
which  occurred  in  Berlin.  This  has  been  described 
as  follows: 

"  An  American  gentleman,  living  with  his  family 
in  Berlin,  was  one  morning  awakened  by  the  smell 
of  smoke  in  his  apartment,  and  found  that  a  fire, 
originating  in  a  room  overhead,  was  eating  its  way 
down  through  the  ceiling  of  his  dining  room.  The 
fire  was  extinguished  with  chemical  apparatus  with- 
out any  water  damage  and  without  needless  destruc- 
tion of  walls  or  furniture,  and  before  the  firemen 
left  they  had  removed  every  trace  of  debris  and 
scrubbed  the  floors  of  the  rooms  in  which  they  had 
worked. 

"  Meanwhile  a  careful  investigation  was  made  by 
officers  equipped  with  notebooks,  not  by  asking  ques- 
tions of  tenants  or  gossiping  with  servants,  but  from 
personal  observation.  Next  morning  the  gentleman 


288          FIRE   PREVENTION 

who  had  turned  in  the  alarm  was  sent  for  and  con- 
ducted before  a  fire  marshal,  or  equivalent  officer 
with  inquisitorial  powers.  That  he  had  important 
engagements  elsewhere  counted  for  nothing.  Pub- 
lic business  never  waits  on  private  convenience  in 
Prussia.  He  was  asked  all  sorts  of  questions  which 
he  was  able  to  answer  satisfactorily.  The  fire  was 
known  to*  have  orginated  from  a  coal  which  had 
dropped  from  a  laundry  stove  in  the  attic  and  rolled 
upon  an  unprotected  wooden  floor.  The  tenant 
showed  that  the  stove  was  an  appointment  of  the 
building,  provided  by  the  landlord,  and  that  it  was 
neither  his  duty  nor  his  privilege  to  change  it. 

"  Then  the  landlord  was  called.  He  showed  that 
he  had  recently  purchased  the  building,  under  the 
usual  guaranty  that  all  laws  and  ordinances  had  been 
complied  with  in  construction  and  appointments; 
that  he  had  neither  set  nor  moved  the  stove  in  ques- 
tion, and  that  his  attention  had  not  been  called  to  any 
condition  involving  a  fire  risk.  This  was  not  con- 
sidered quite  satisfactory,  and  he  was  told  to  wait 
further  instructions.  Then  the  builder,  from  whom 
the  landlord  purchased,  was  called.  He  had  to  ad- 
mit that  he,  as  the  builder,  was  responsible  for  the 
setting  of  the  stove  as  the  police  had  found  it,  and 
that  he  had  violated  the  law  in  neglecting  to  provide 


FIRE    MARSHALS  289 

a  suitable  metallic  hearth,  of  the  required  kind  and 
dimensions,  between  it  and  the  floor.  For  this  he 
was  held  culpable. 

"  The  assessment  against  him  began  with  the  esti- 
mated cost  to  the  city  of  responding  to  the  alarm 
and  extinguishing  the  fire,  including  the  damage  to 
the  furniture  and  property  of  tenants,  and  was 
rounded  by  an  exemplary  fine  of  500  marks,  as  a 
reminder  that  laws  are  enacted  for  a  purpose,  and 
carry  substantial  penalties  for  their  violation.  The 
damage  to  the  building  was  not  included  in  the 
assessment  against  the  builder.  It  was  held  that 
while  the  owner  had  not  committed  the  violation  of 
law  which  caused  the  fire,  he  had  been  negligent  in 
not  discovering  and  correcting  it,  and  for  this  reason 
he  should  pay  for  his  own  repairs  and  stand  charged 
with  knowledge  of  his  duty  in  like  cases.1'  * 

This  may  seem  an  exaggerated  case  of  interfer- 
ence with  personal  liberty  and  several  other  things 
dear  to  the  average  American,  but  if  there  were 
more  of  that  sort  of  thing  in  this  country  there  would 
be  fewer  fires  every  year,  and  we  would  not  occupy 
the  unenviable  place  of  the  leader  of  the  world  in 
fire  losses.  It  is  the  plain  duty  of  cities  and  of 

*  Dr.  James  C.  Bayless,  in  City  Life  and  Municipal  Facts. 


29o          FIRE   PREVENTION 

States  to  increase  the  powers  and  magnify  the  im- 
portance of  their  fire  marshals.  I  am  glad  to  say, 
there  is  a  decided  tendency  in  this  direction.  Last 
year  New  York  created  the  office  of  State  Fire 
Marshal,  with  beneficial  results  clearly  shown  by 
that  officer's  first  report,  and  there  are  now  fire  mar- 
shal laws  in  twenty-two  other  States,  counting  the 
District  of  Columbia  as  one.  They  are:  Alabama, 
California,  Connecticut,  District  of  Columbia, 
Illinois,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Nebraska,  Maine, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
and  West  Virginia. 

Wide  powers  should  be  invested  in  fire  marshals, 
both  city  and  State,  including  the  power  to  arrest  on 
certain  charges  connected  with  the  fire  hazard.  His 
investigation  should  be  clothed  with  authority,  so 
that  he  may  summon  witnesses,  subpoena  records 
and  perform  all  the  other  functions,  without  ques- 
tion, which  will  lead  him  to  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  facts.  Carelessness  is  to  blame  for  such  a 
large  proportion  of  our  fires  and  criminality  for  so 
many  of  the  remainder,  that  no  pains  should  be 
spared  in  fixing  the  blame  on  the  responsible  person 
and  making  him  suffer  drastic  punishment  for  the 
consequences.  As  long  as  the  average  building 


FIRE    MARSHALS  291 

owner  or  lessee  believes  that  he  needs  only  fulfil 
such  requirements  of  safety  as  will  make  it  possible 
for  him  to  insure  and  that  then,  if  a  fire  occurs,  it  is 
the  business  of  the  municipality  to  put  it  out,  at  a 
high  cost  both  in  money  and  risk,  and  to  sympathise 
with  him  in  the  bargain,  fires  will  go  on  increasing  in 
number  and  costliness.  This  individual  should  be 
forced  to  realise  that  a  fire  in  his  building  is  his 
fire,  that  it  is  part  of  his  civic  duty  to  do  all  in  his 
power  to  prevent  its  occurrence  and  that  he  must  be 
prepared  to  suffer  the  consequences  if  he  has  failed 
in  this  duty  in  the  smallest  particular.  To  bring 
about  this  change  in  the  public  feeling  the  fire  mar- 
shal's law  and  the  fire  marshal  armed  with  it  can 
do  much. 

Arson  is  far  more  prevalent  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  It  is  of  common,  almost  of  daily,  occur- 
rence. This,  of  course,  is  the  chief  concern  of  the 
fire  marshal.  He  should  make  every  effort  to  get  at 
the  bottom  of  every  suspicious  case  and  ferret  out 
all  the  facts,  and  then,  if  he  finds  guilt,  strive  with 
all  his  might  to  bring  the  guilty  persons  to  justice. 
In  this  field  he  can  be  of  inestimable  service  in  any 
community.  How  large  the  field  is  and  how  malign 
the  work  of  the  fire-bug  will  be  indie? ted  in  the  next 
chapter. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

INCENDIARISM  AND  ARSON 

ARSON — one  of  the  worst  of  crimes — is  becoming 
more  and  more  prevalent  each  year.  It  forms  one  of 
the  greatest  dangers  of  city  life.  Articles  in  the  daily 
press  speak  of  the  work  by  fire  fiends,  who  either 
burn  for  gain  or  are  afflicted  by  the  fire  madness 
commonly  called  pyromania.  Although  conviction 
for  arson  carries  with  it  a  penalty  of  a  great  number 
of  years'  imprisonment,  or  of  death,  if  it  be  of  the 
first  degree,  this  fact  does  not  seem  to  act  a's  a  deter- 
ent  to  the  commission  of  this  crime. 

Conviction  for  arson  is  generally  conceded  to  be 
harder  to  secure  than  conviction  for  murder.  In 
the  murder  case  there  is  usually  some  tangible  evi- 
dence of  the  commission  of  the  crime;  but,  in  arson, 
well-laid  plans,  if  successful,  usually  destroy  all  evi- 
dence necessary  for  a  conviction,  and  the  fire  then 
becomes  one  of  questionable  origin  without  much 
proof  as  to  its  real  cause.  All  evidence  obtainable 

in  these  cases  is  of  a  circumstantial  nature,  and  like 

292 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    293 

the  proverbial  chain,  is  but  as  strong  as  its  weakest 
link. 

Circumstantial  evidence  when  laid  before  a  jury, 
may  or  may  not  be  impressive  enough  to  convince 
the  jurors  of  the  prisoner's  guilt.  Those  in  author- 
ity who  have  devoted  many  years  to  investigation  of 
fires  of  criminal  origin  almost  despair  of  securing 
evidence  strong  enough  to  make  a  conviction  certain. 

The  investigation  of  an  incendiary  fire  is  rarely  an 
easy  task.  It  frequently  takes  weeks,  and  some- 
times months  or  even  years,  to  secure  the  evidence 
necessary  to  justify  or  warrant  an  arrest  and  pros- 
ecution. The  number  of  fires  occurring  in  the  great 
city  of  New  York  due  to  incendiarism  may  be  safely 
estimated  at  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  that  occur. 
Many  of  these  are  set  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  fire  insurance  money  on  the  property  destroyed, 
and  these  fires  are  classed  as  "  incendiary  for  gain."k 
It  is  largely  from  this  cause  that  fire  insurance  com- 
panies derive  little  profit  from  their  underwriting 
business.  The  fire  department  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  recognising  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of 
fires  occurring  in  the  city  are  due  to  incendiarism,  has 
provided  an  investigating  department  known  as  the 
Bureau  of  Fire  Marshal,  such  as  has  been  men- 
tioned. 


294          FIRE    PREVENTION 

To  this  bureau  is  given  the  task  of  investigating 
all  fires  that  occur  in  the  city,  in  order  to  determine 
their  origin,  and  to  take  up  the  prosecution  of  those 
guilty  of  incendiarism.  This  bureau  is  vested  with 
great  power,  having  authority  to  issue  subpoenas, 
examine  witnesses  under  oath,  as  to  their  knowledge 
regarding  the  cause  and  origin  of  a  fire,  all  such 
witnesses  being  compelled  to  produce  books  of  ac- 
count or  such  other  documentary  evidence  as  may  be 
in  their  possession.  Any  false  swearing  before  the 
fire  marshal,  regarding  the  subject  matter  under  in- 
vestigation is  deemed  perjury  and  punishable  as  such. 
Notwithstanding  this,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  at 
times  to  get  witnesses  to  admit  the  truth,  and  furnish 
the  marshal  with  the  necessary  affidavit  to  procure 
warrants  upon  which  legal  arrests  can  be  made. 

Many  interesting  cases  are  due  to  pyromaniacs, 
or  fire-making  fiends,  and  there  are  enough  of  them 
in  New  York  City  to  fill  a  special  institution. 

One  of  this  particular  type  set  fire  to  fifteen 
crowded  tenements  in  a  Harlem  district  measuring 
six  blocks  by  eleven.  All  of  these  fires  were  made 
between  February  i  and  July  12,  1910.  His  usual 
method  was  to  take  an  evening  newspaper  and  a 
bottle  of  kerosene  oil,  and  creeping  up  through  the 
hallway  stairs  to  the  second  floor,  place  the  paper 


•a 

l£ 


•+-•    o 
8  fe  ^ 


ct 
> 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    295 

against  the  wooden  wainscoting  in  the  hall,  pour  the 
kerosene  over  it  and  start  his  fire  in  that  way.  When 
he  was  caught  in  the  act  of  making  one  of  these 
fires,  he  turned  out  to  be  a  young  fellow,  about 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  who  was  working  as  an 
errand  boy  in  a  drug  store  which  was  situated  near 
the  centre  of  the  scene  of  his  operation.  After  his 
arrest,  he  was  committed  to  an  institution  for  weak- 
minded  persons,  and  about  six  months  later,  after 
having  been  discharged  as  cured,  he  was  again  cap- 
tured making  a  fire  of  similar  character. 

Another  captured  pyromaniac  was  an  attractive- 
looking  young  fellow  about  twenty-four  years  old, 
well  dressed,  with  pleasant  manners,  and  mentally 
not  as  far  below  normal  as  pyromaniacs  usually  are. 
He  was  a  church  member  and  took  an  active  part  in 
church  affairs.  He  was  addicted  to  the  use  of  ciga- 
rettes, and  as  nearly  an  example  of  perpetual  motion 
as  was  humanly  possible.  He  had  served  a  term  in 
the  Elmira  Reformatory  for  setting  fire  to  a  house. 
After  his  last  arrest  for  setting  fire  to  a  dwelling  he 
made  the  following  statement  before  the  fire  mar- 
shal: 

"  Cigarettes  have  brought  me  to  this.  Ever  since 
I  was  a  boy  I  was  crazy  for  them.  And  with  this 
craving  there  came  that  other  passion,  which  I  can- 


296          FIRE    PREVENTION 

not  understand — an  overwhelming  impulse  to  set 
fire  to  something — and  I  was  forced  to  obey  it.  If 
I  see  an  engine,  I  chase  after  it,  no  matter  how  far. 
I  never  can  stop  till  I  get  to  the  fire." 

While  making  this  statement  he  asked  for  a  ciga- 
rette and  lighted  it.  He  breathed  in  a  large  volume 
of  smoke  and  exhaled  it. 

"  I  am  a  pyromaniac,"  he  went  on.  "  It  is  a  dis- 
ease for  which  I  need  medical  attention.  I  cannot 
help  it.  I  am  guilty  of  all  the  crimes  charged 
against  me,  but  I  ought  not  to  go  to  prison.  I  ought 
to  go  to  a  place  where  I  can  get  a  doctor's  care  and 
no  cigarettes.  When  I  set  fires,  I  simply  want  to 
destroy  property  and  see  the  tenants  run.  I  have 
no  intention  to  kill.  I  want  to  see  the  flames  and 
the  engines  and  enjoy  the  excitement" 

He  made  a  lengthy  plea  to  the  trial  judge  who 
sentenced  him,  speaking  somewhat  as  follows : 

"  Your  Honor :  God  is  my  witness,  I  cannot  control 
myself  unless  my  mind  is  attended  to  from  a  medical 
standpoint.  I  am  willing  to  do  right  and  be  an  up- 
right citizen.  My  thoughts  as  to  what  ought  to  be 
done  are  clear  to  me,  but  I  cannot  carry  them  out  on 
account  of  a  giddish,  weak,  and  childish  thought 
which  gets  the  better  of  me,  off  and  on,  lasting  two, 
three,  or  four  days  at  a  time." 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    297 

Another  man  of  this  type  operated  in  a  section  of 
Brooklyn  known  as  Park  Slope.  He  was  employed 
as  a  delivery  boy  by  one  of  the  neighbouring  grocery 
stores.  It  was  his  habit  when  sent  to  deliver  ah 
order  to  make  a  fire  in  the  cellar  of  the  house  in 
which  the  order  was  delivered,  and  for  three  months 
he  made  from  one  to  three  fires  a  day,  keeping  the 
fire  department  constantly  on  the  jump  to  extinguish 
them.  Some  were  very  destructive,  and  so  great  in 
extent  as  to  cause  a  second  alarm  to  be  sent  in. 
After  his  arrest  this  firebug  was  identified  as  having 
been  previously  arrested  in  Manhattan  for  the  same 
cause,  but  for  lack  of  evidence  had  been  released 
from  custody.  He  pleaded  guilty  and  was  sent  to 
Elmira  Reformatory. 

Another  "  pyro,"  as  these  maniacs  are  called  for 
short,  started  his  career  in  house-burning  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  by  setting  fire  to  the  home  of  his  grand- 
father. After  a  series  of  fires  he  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  a  reformatory  for  four  years.  Upon  his 
release  he  continued  in  his  nefarious  work,  was  again 
arrested  and  sent  to  prison  for  an  indeterminate  sen- 
tence of  not  less  than  four  or  more  than  ten  years. 
At  the  end  of  four  years,  having  become  deeply  relig- 
ious, he  was  released,  and  in  a  very  short  time  there- 
after he  was  again  arrested  for  setting  fire  to  build- 


298  FIRE    PREVENTION 

ings,  and  is  now  serving  a  sentence  of  thirty  years 
in  Sing  Sing  Prison. 

Many  cases  of  this  character  could  be  cited,  and 
the  general  public  have  very  little  knowledge  as  to 
the  number  of  this  class  of  criminals  walking  un- 
restrained about  the  streets  of  any  great  city.  They 
are  all  of  them  mentally  defective  and  should  be 
confined  to  an  institution,  where  their  habits  could 
be  studied,  with  a  view  to  curing  these  symptoms 
when  observed. 

I  am  informed  by  those  that  have  studied  pyro- 
mania  exhaustively  that  these  mental  defects  cannot 
be  cured  after  the  person  has  reached  the  age  of 
fifteen.  A  long  experience  leads  me  to  believe  that 
one  subject  to  this  disease  of  fire  making  will  con- 
tinue to  make  fires  from  time  to  time  as  opportunity 
presents  itself. 

Incendiarism  for  gain  is  considered  in  fire  depart- 
ment circles  as  a  "  moral  hazard,"  and  is  due  to  the 
desire  of  securing  something  for  nothing.  Hardly 
a  day  passes  in  the  city  of  New  York  that  a  fire  of 
this  class  does  not  take  place.  It  is  easy  to  obtain 
a  policy  of  insurance  against  fire,  and  one  need  not 
have  any  great  amount  of  personal  property  to  se- 
cure its  issue.  The  insurance  companies  hardly 
ever  inspect  the  property  of  the  householder  who 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    299 

applies  for  insurance.  The  rates  are  too  low  to 
warrant  a  surveying  of  risks  of  this  class.  Indeed 
it  is  surprising  at  times,  when  the  investigating  officer 
reaches  the  scene  of  a  recent  fire,  to  see  how  little 
of  value  was  contained  within  the  premises  insured. 

The  terms  and  conditions  of  many  an  insurance 
policy  provide  that  in  case  of  fire  the  insured  shall 
make  a  list  of  his  household  effects  and  file  it  with 
the  company,  this  list  being  the  proof  of  what  the 
risk  in  question  contained  previous  to  the  conflagra- 
tion. Some  of  these  lists  are  the  most  wonderful 
work  of  a  vivid  imagination,  and  it  is  due  largely  to 
the  careless  adjustment  of  these  losses  after  the  fire 
that  the  incendiary  is  encouraged  in  his  work  of  de- 
struction. It  is  said  that  "moral  hazard"  begins 
where  prosperity  ends.  Let  a  man  be  caught  with 
a  stock  of  goods  on  his  hands  which  nobody  will 
buy,  with  expenses  piling  up  and  bills  payable  coming  . 
in,  and  his  insurance  policy  becomes  like  a  lure  of 
Satan.  Grasping  at  a  straw,  he  will  listen  to  no  ad- 
vice, but  commits  the  crime  of  arson  to  escape  from 
his  financial  difficulties. 

I  recall  responding  to  an  alarm  of  fire  which  hap- 
pened some  years  ago  in  the  lower  West  Side  of  the 
city.  Upon  my  arrival  I  was  greeted  by  the  bat- 
talion chief  in  charge  with  the  remark: 


300          FIRE    PREVENTION 

"  Say,  Chief,  this  is  the  greatest  attempt  to  burn 
up  a  building  that  I  have  ever  seen." 

Following  him  into  the  building,  my  attention  was 
directed  to  a  stock  of  Spanish  grapes  contained  in 
barrels  piled  in  tiers  throughout  the  store  floor. 
Small  aisles  had  been  left  between  the  rows  of  bar- 
rels which  were  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other  to  a 
height  of  about  six  or  seven  feet.  Hanging  through- 
out these  aisles  were  beef  bladders  which  were  found 
upon  examination,  to  be  filled  with  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  turpentine.  A  large  quantity  of  news- 
papers had  been  piled  up  in  one  end  of  the  store 
and  set  on  fire  by  the  aid  of  a  candle  which  had  been 
left  burning.  The  fire  was  discovered  before  it 
made  headway  enough  to  heat  and  explode  the  blad- 
ders containing  the  volatile  oils. 

The  proprietor  of  this  place  was  arrested  and 
charged  with  the  crime  of  arson,  and  after  a  trial 
before  a  jury,  was  found  not  guilty  and  discharged 
from  custody. 

The  method  used  in  this  case  is  one  that  seems  to 
find  favour  with  many  incendiaries  of  foreign  birth. 
I  recall  a  similar  fire  which  occurred  in  a  moving 
picture  hall  in  Ii6th  Street,  in  the  upper  East  Side. 
There  were  found  on  the  premises  after  the  fire  was 
extinguished  thirty-nine  bladders  filled  with  a  fluid 
which  proved  to  be  gasolene. 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    301 

One  night  just  before  going  to  bed  I  was  called 
to  a  fire  in  a  clothing  factory.  Upon  the  arrival  of 
the  firemen  the  doors  of  the  fifth  loft  were  broken 
in.  After  extinguishing  the  fire  a  strong  odour  of 
oil  was  detected.  Upon  closer  examination  of  the 
premises,  it  was  discovered  that  a  number  of  large 
pasteboard  boxes  which  had  been  placed  upon  the 
floor  and  cutting  tables  contained  from  one  to  three 
inches  of  a  liquid  substance  of  a  highly  inflammable 
nature.  Leading  from  one  box  to  the  other  were 
long  strips  of  buckram,  placed  in  such  a  manner  that 
upon  ignition  of  the  contents  of  one  box,  fire  would 
rapidly  communicate  with  the  others.  Several  half- 
burned  candles  were  found  inserted  in  bundles  of 
waste  paper.  The  windows  of  the  establishment 
had  been  covered  by  heavy  wrapping  paper  in  sucK 
a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  fire  from  being  seen  from 
the  outside.  Despite  all  the  precautions  taken  to 
avoid  premature  discovery  of  the  fire,  however,  it  so 
happened  that  a  watchman  in  a  building  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  street  saw  the  flicker  of  the  flame 
when  making  his  rounds  in  the  upper  part  of  his 
building  and  turned  in  an  alarm. 

All  of  these  cases  are  types  of  fire  which  are  set 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  money  from  the  insur- 
ance companies,  and  come  under  the  class  of  in- 
cendiarism for  gain. 


302          FIRE    PREVENTION 

Cases  of  this  kind  could  be  cited  almost  without 
number,  and  only  recently  a  judge  in  the  Court  of 
Special  Sessions  declared  from  the  bench  during  the 
trial  of  a  case  of  arson,  that  he  was  of  the  opinion 
that  fully  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  all  fires  occurring 
in  the  greater  city  are  incendiary  in  their  origin. 

As  a  result  of  this  statement,  the  District  Attor- 
ney of  New  York  County  has  recently  organised 
an  Arson  Bureau,  and  placed  one  of  the  assistant 
district  attorneys  in  charge,  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
sisting the  fire  department  in  preparing  cases,  and 
prosecuting  those  who  are  deemed  guilty  of  this 
crime.  This  is  a  move  in  the  right  direction,  and 
the  District  Attorney  deserves  commendation  for  it. 
Other  cities  might  well  follow  New  York's  example 
in  this  regard. 

New  York  City  is  not  unfamiliar  with  veritable 
epidemics  of  arson  during  which  half  a  score  of  fires 
have  been  started  in  a  single  district  in  the  course 
of  a  few  days.  Not  very  long  ago  a  single  Harlem 
tenement  had  nine  fires  in  the  course  of  thirty-six 
hours,  all  apparently  set  by  the  same  diabolic  hand. 
No  sooner  would  the  engines  depart  or  the  janitor 
put  away  the  fire  extinguisher  and  calm  the  terrified 
tenants,  than  a  new  blaze  would  spring  up  in  a  pile 
of  oil-soaked  rags  in  another  part  of  the  house, 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    303 

usually  under  a  flight  of  stairs  or  in  some  other  out- 
of-the-way  corner.  The  authorities  in  this  case 
were  unable  to  catch  the  culprit,  and  had  to  content 
themselves  with  deciding  that  the  pyromaniac  or 
criminal  had  gained  access  to  the  house  by  way  of 
the  roof. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  maniac  fires  are  not  the 
only  form  of  arson.  The  Chicago  police  recently  ap- 
prehended a  man,  who  shall  be  nameless,  who  told  a 
story  of  failing  business  over  a  period  of  a  year 
and  excused  his  incendiarism  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  trying  to  protect  his  partner's  brother,  who  was 
financially  interested  in  the  hat  business  which  he 
attempted  to  destroy.  He  made  the  following  con- 
fession. 

"  About  two  weeks  ago  and  I  talked 

over  the  matter  of  protecting  his  brother,  and  it  was 
suggested  at  that  time  that  we  burn  the  stock  of 
goods.  I  do  not  recall  who  first  suggested  the 
burning  of  the  stock.  On  the  morning  of  April  10 

I  and  concluded  to  burn  the  place,  and 

while  we  were  both  together  we  bought  a  candle  in 
a  grocery  store  on  North  Halstead  Street,  near  Ad- 
dison  Street,  the  name  of  which  I  do  not  recall. 

Then and  I  came  back  to  the  shop  and 

went  to  the  Boston  Store  for  lunch  and  there  we 


304          FIRE   PREVENTION 

bought  a  box  of  toothpicks  which  were  paid  for 
by-  — . 

:<  Those  toothpicks  were  used  to  support  the 
candle  on  the  floor  of  the  shop.  We  bought  a  half 
pint  bottle  in  a  drug  store  and  had  the  bottle  filled 
with  kerosene. 

" and  I  returned  to  the  shop  between 

5  130  and  5  :45  o'clock  that  evening  and  found  the 
shipping  clerk  still  there.  We  again  left  the  shop 
in  order  to  give  him  an  opportunity  to  leave. 

" went  up  first  when  we  returned,  and 

he  and  I  entered  the  third  floor.  Both  of  us  then 
collected  papers  and  scattered  the  oil  over  the 
papers  and  boxes  and  cut  away  a  small  amount  of 
the  candle  into  the  wick.  We  put  a  number  of 
toothpicks  into  the  candle  at  an  angle  in  order  to 
form  a  base  for  holding  it  on  the  floor.  The  paper 
attached  to  the  candle  was  saturated  with  oil,  as 
were  the  papers  and  boxes  and  other  materials  near 
the  candle.  Then  I  lit  the  candle." 

This  man  had  a  confederate  in  his  work,  and 
though  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, still  there  have  been  many  "  burning  part- 
nerships "  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  authori- 
ties. In  the  same  city  where  the  case  just  cited  took 
place,  Chicago,  there  existed  for  a  time  a  true  arson 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    305 

trust.  The  leader  in  this  nefarious  business,  which 
was,  of  course,  carried  on  for  profit,  gave  testimony 
to  the  effect  that  in  the  space  of  a  few  months  more 
than  one  hundred  fires  had  been  started  by  the  trust, 
causing  a  loss  of  more  than  a  million  dollars'  worth 
of  property.  New  York  has  had  a  similar  case  un- 
der consideration  very  recently.  The  moving  spirit 
of  a  band  of  firebugs,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
formed  during  the  panic  of  1907  and  to  have 
worked  in  collusion  with  dishonest  insurance  brok- 
ers, was  arrested  just  after  setting  a  fire  under  the 
very  eyes  of  detectives  disguised  as  tramps.  The 
field  of  operations  of  this  delightful  character,  who 
was  previously  known  to  the  police,  and  of  his 
cronies,  was  the  tenement  section  of  the  upper  East 
Side,  a  fact  which  made  their  work  the  blacker  be- 
cause of  the  danger  to  human  life  which  it  neces- 
sarily involved.  This  man  and  his  "  firebugs' 
league  "  are  said  to  have  set  not  less  than  three 
hundred  fires  in  the  last  five  years. 

This  wanton  destruction  of  property  and  reckless 
disregard  of  human  life  in  the  bargain  are  perhaps 
more  reprehensible  than  the  work  of  the  true  pyro- 
maniac  or  the  feeble-minded  person.  He,  at  least, 
is  usually  not  responsible  for  his  actions.  But  he 
is  none  the  less  dangerous  on  that  account.  The 


306  FIRE    PREVENTION 

State  Charities  Aid  Association  recently  reported 
to  the  Legislature  of  New  York  concerning  the  grow- 
ing numbers  of  feeble-minded  persons  at  large  in 
New  York  City,  forming  a  menace  to  the  safety  of 
the  community.  According  to  the  report,  one 
feeble-minded  youth  set  fire  to  sixteen  five-story 
tenement  houses  in  this  city  in  five  months,  endang- 
ering thereby  the  lives  of  three  hundred  and  sixty 
families.  His  only  motive  was  the  love  of  excite- 
ment. Another  case  reported  was  that  of  a  feeble- 
minded man  who  set  forty-five  fires  within  three 
months  and  caused  a  loss  of  $250,000. 

In  addition  to  pyromania  and  greed,  there  are 
other  motives  which  prompt  fire  setters.  Revenge, 
mischief,  and  the  desire  to  blot  out  the  traces  of 
other  crimes,  such  as  murder,  are  sometimes  the 
moving  causes.  Thus  the  State  Fire  Marshal  of 
Ohio  reported  that  in  1911,  out  of  eighty-five  per- 
sons convicted  of  arson,  fourteen  were  attempting 
to  defraud  the  insurance  companies,  twenty-six  were 
actuated  by  malice  or  revenge,  three  were  attempt- 
ing to  conceal  crimes,  eleven  were  insane  or  pyro- 
maniacs  and  thirty-one  were  merely  mischievous. 

From  the  few  leaves  from  the  notebook  of  the 
arson  records  which  I  have  set  down,  it  may  readily 
be  appreciated,  I  think,  that  this  crime  is  one  of 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    307 

serious  proportions  in  this  country.  All  the 
energies  of  the  fire  marshals  of  the  several  States 
and  cities  should  be  bent  to  putting  a  check  to  its 
spread.  Drastic  punishment  should  be  meted  out 
to  any  who  are  found  guilty  of  it  while  in  their  right 
mind,  and  there  should  be  a  persistent  effort  to 
trace  and  restrain  those  who,  in  their  weakness  of 
mind,  start  the  flames  merely  to  see  the  engines 
come,  or  to  watch  the  spectacle  of  a  burning  build- 
ing. They  should  be  recognised  as  among  the  most 
dangerous  members  of  the  community,  and,  though 
not  treated  harshly,  be  placed  in  proper  institutions 
where  their  tendencies  may  be  checked  and  their  ill 
deeds  prevented. 

For  this  purpose  trained  men  are  essential,  for 
there  is  no  trail  more  difficult  for  the  detective  to 
follow  than  that  of  the  "  pyro."  Like  other  classes 
of  maniacs,  he  is  frequently  gifted  with  unusual 
cunning  and  able  to  weave  a  mesh  of  concealment 
and  mystification  about  his  work  that  is  exceedingly 
hard  to  penetrate.  This  is  but  an  additional  rea- 
son for  insisting  that  a  man  of  high  abilities  and 
character  be  chosen  to  fill  the  office  of  fire  marshal 
in  any  city  or  State. 

Instances  are  on  record  in  which  the  work  of  an 
incendiary  has  terrorised  a  whole  community.  This 


308  FIRE    PREVENTION 

was  the  case  in  Waterbury,  Conn.,  in  April,  1912. 
Twelve  fires,  all  of  incendiary  origin,  took  place 
between  2  o'clock  one  afternoon  and  8  130  o'clock 
the  same  night.  So  alarmed  were  the  people  of  the 
city  that  the  Mayor  called  out  a  company  of  the 
national  guard.  Among  the  fires,  which  were  all 
started  in  the  basements  of  buildings  by  means  of 
oil-soaked  rags,  was  one  which  destroyed  the  City 
Hall,  and  with  it  the  tax  assessor's  office,  causing  a 
loss  of  $200,000.  The  work  of  the  incendiary  was 
similar  to  that  of  another  fire  fiend  who  destroyed 
property  in  the  same  city,  in  February,  1902,  valued 
at  $4,000,000.  This  year's  incendiary  timed  his 
fires  thirty  minutes  apart. 

One  excellent  practice  with  regard  to  arson  is 
that  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
in  offering  rewards  for  the  arrest  and  conviction  of 
those  who  set  fires.  This  plan  has  been  in  opera- 
tion since  1873  and,  although  but  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  total  amount  offered  has  been  earned 
and  paid  out,  the  number  of  convictions  has  never- 
theless been  such  as  to  justify  the  practice.  The 
amount  of  the  rewards  offered  has  varied  from 
$1,000  to  $25.  During  the  year  ending  April  i, 
1912,  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  rewards,  aggre- 
gating $40,100  were  offered.  From  1873  to  tne 


INCENDIARISMANDARSON    309 

same  date,  six  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
rewards  were  offered,  aggregating  $2,044,175,  and 
two  hundred  and  eighty  were  earned  and  paid,  ag- 
gregating $84,519.  These  two  hundred  and  eighty 
rewards  resulted  in,  or  rather  were  the  result  of, 
three  hundred  and  ninety-five  convictions  for  sen- 
tences, of  which  two  were  death,  seventeen  life  im- 
prisonment and  the  balance  prison  terms  totalling  at 
least  five  hundred  and  eighteen  years. 

This  is  a  practice  which  might  well  be  followed 
by  States  and  cities.  They  do  in  some  cases  now 
offer  special  rewards,  but  the  practice  could  be  ex- 
tended with  great  benefit. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

LAW  MAKING  AND  FIRE  PREVENTIVE  WORK  ALONG 
LEGAL  AND  OTHER  LINES 

ALTHOUGH  the  evidence  of  the  fire  loss  statistics 
shows  that  there  is  far  too  little  general  interest  in 
the  problems  of  the  fire  hazard  in  this  country,  much 
is  nevertheless  being  done  to  study  these  problems 
and  attempt  their  solution.  There  are  many  bodies 
whose  activities  are  countrywide,  concerned  with 
these  matters;  associations  such  as  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association,  the  national  organisa- 
tions of  fire  chiefs  and  of  firemen  and  other  bodies 
of  similar  character.  There  are  also  a  great  many 
State  and  local  organisations,  water  boards,  volun- 
teer associations,  etc.,  whose  activities  are  engaged 
in  one  form  or  another  in  the  presentation  of  a 
more  impervious  front  against  the  arch  enemy,  fire. 
As  might  be  expected,  no  class  of  persons  in  the 
country  is  more  active  in  this  regard  than  the  insur- 
ance men.  It  is  to  their  material  interest,  contrary 

to  the  erroneous  opinion  widely  held,  to  keep  down 

310 


LAW    MAKING  311 

the  fire  loss  and  help  to  prevent  fire  in  every  pos- 
sible way.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  vital  part 
of  their  business,  and  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
the  interest  of  the  property  holder  and  the  interest 
of  the  insurance  company,  or  the  underwriters,  is 
invariably  one  in  the  matter.  Both  are  fighting  the 
same  battle.  They  are  allies. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  work  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  has  developed  a  feature  of 
great  value,  which  should  be  imitated  by  the  national 
and  State  government,  by  establishing  and  main- 
taining laboratories,  known  as  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  where  exhaustive  tests  of  materials 
and  appliances  which  have  any  bearing  on  the  re- 
duction of  the  fire  hazard  are  conducted.  The 
work  of  these  laboratories  has  been  and  is  of  great 
value,  and  I  believe  that  their  work,  already  familiar 
to  many,  should  be  even  more  widely  known.  The 
purpose  and  methods  of  the  organisation  have  thus 
been  described  by  its  managers: 

"  Underwriters'  Laboratories  exists  by  virtue  of 
a  charter  granted  November,  1901,  by  the  State  of 
Illinois,  authorising  the  corporation  to  establish 
and  maintain  laboratories  for  the  examination  and 
testing  of  appliances  and  devices,  and  to  enter  into 
contracts  with  the  owners  and  manufacturers  of 


3i2  FIRE    PREVENTION 

such  appliances  and  devices  respecting  the  recom- 
mendation thereof  to  insurance  organisations. 

'  The  corporation  is  not  in  business  for  profit. 
Its  chief  financial  support  is  received  from  the  Na- 
tional Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  under  whose 
general  direction  the  work  is  carried  on.  The 
members  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  corpora- 
tion are  chosen  from  the  officers  of  the  national 
board  and  other  organisations  of  underwriters  from 
which  donations  of  money  are  received. 

'*  The  work  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  con- 
fined to  investigations  having  a  bearing  upon  the 
fire  hazard,  and  is  undertaken  as  one  means  of  se- 
curing correct  solutions  of  many  of  the  problems 
presented  by  the  enormous  and  disproportionate  de- 
struction by  fire  of  property  in  the  United  States. 
The  object  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  to 
bring  to  the  user  the  one  best  obtainable  opinion 
on  the  merits  or  demerits  of  appliances  in  respect 
to  the  fire  hazard.  Such  appliances  include  those 
designed  to  aid  in  extinguishing  fires,  such  as  auto- 
matic sprinklers,  pumps,  hand  fire  appliances,  hose, 
hydrants,  nozzles,  valves,  etc. ;  materials  and  de- 
vices designed  to  retard  the  spread  of  fire,  such  as 
structural  methods  and  materials,  fire  doors  and 
shutters,  fire  windows,  etc.,  and  machines  and  fit- 
tings which  may  be  instrumental  in  causing  a  fire, 


LAW    MAKING  313 

such  as  gas  and  oil  appliances,  electrical  fittings, 
chemicals,  and  the  various  machines  and  appurte- 
nances used  in  lighting  and  heating. 

"  The  principal  offices  and  testing  station  of  Un- 
derwriters' Laboratories,  Inc.,  are  located  at 
Chicago.  Branch  offices  are  located  in  thirty-two 
other  cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
Chicago  plant  occupies  a  three-story  and  basement 
building  of  fireproof  construction  containing  some- 
thing over  20,000  square  feet  of  floor  space  with 
a  frontage  of  one  hundred  and  sixteen  feet.  Yard 
space  is  provided  for  huts  and  large  testing  fur- 
naces. The  main  building  in  Chicago  is,  perhaps, 
the  best  example  in  America  of  absolutely  fireproof 
construction,  furnished  with  fireproof  finish  and 
equipment.  Brick,  terra  cotta,  concrete,  stone,  steel 
and  iron,  are  exclusively  used  in  the  structural  fea- 
tures. The  window  frames  and  sash  are  of  metal  with 
wired  glass,  the  doors  are  of  metal,  and  desks  and 
filing  cases  in  the  main  office  are  of  steel,  and  even 
some  of  the  picture  frames  are  of  the  same  material. 
No  wood  or  other  combustible  material  is  used  in 
any  portion  of  the  finish.  In  addition,  the  plant  is 
equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers,  and  the  light- 
ing and  heating  hazards  are  safeguarded  with  every 
known  precaution  applicable  to  their  installation  in 
buildings  of  frame  construction.  In  this  model 


314  FIRE    PREVENTION 

building  the  underwriters  have  gone  to  the  extreme 
in  adopting  in  their  property  all  of  the  measures 
they  are  known  to  recommend  in  the  property  of 
others.  Fifty-two  persons  are  employed  in  the 
Chicago  plant,  which,  with  its  equipment,  has  a 
value  of  approximately  $100,000. 

"  Summaries  of  the  laboratories'  reports  are  pro- 
mulgated on  printed  cards  filed  according  to  classifi- 
cations, and  cabinets  containing  these  cards  are 
maintained  at  the  offices  of  the  principal  boards  of 
underwriters  and  inspection  bureaus  in  the  United 
States,  at  many  of  the  general  offices  of  insurance 
companies,  by  some  insurance  firms,  'certain  mu- 
nicipal departments,  and  at  the  local  offices  of  the 
laboratories  in  large  cities.  Much  of  the  informa- 
tion is  also  freely  distributed  by  means  of  lists  of 
approved  and  permitted  devices  promulgated  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  the  re- 
sults of  the  work  in  many  classes  of  appliances  are 
furnished  directly  to  building  owners,  architects, 
users  and  all  other  persons  interested  by  means  of 
the  laboratories'  labelling  system,  under  which  goods 
are  inspected  at  factories  by  laboratories'  engineers 
and  stamps  or  labels  attached  to  such  portion  of 
the  output  as  is  found  constructed  in  accordance 
with  standard  requirements. 


LAW    MAKING  315 

"  The  aim  of  the  founders  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories  to  secure  the  best  and  fairest  opinion 
regarding  the  merits  or  demerits  of  every  device, 
system  or  material  having  a  bearing  upon  the  fire 
hazard,  and  to  have  the  work  so  conducted  and  re- 
viewed as  to  secure  accuracy  and  uniformity  in  its 
findings,  has  been  accomplished  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  majority  of  fire  underwriters  in  the  United 
States,  many  municipal  authorities,  and  a  large 
number  of  architects,  building  owners  and  users 
either  accept  or  require  a  report  from  these  labor- 
atories incident  to  their  recognition  of  devices,  sys- 
tems and  materials  having  a  bearing  upon  the  fire 
hazard. 

"  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  however,  issues  no 
guarantee  that  its  findings  will  be  accepted  or  rec- 
ognised in  any  case.  Such  assurances  can  only  be 
obtained  from  the  authority  having  jurisdiction. 

"  As  manifestly  the  regular  subscribers  to  the 
laboratories  cannot  be  called  upon  to  cover  the  ex- 
penses of  tests  made  at  the  request  of  others,  a 
system  has  been  established  whereby  a  manufacturer 
or  owner  desirous  of  securing  an  examination  and 
report  by  the  laboratories  on  any  particular  device, 
system  or  material,  is  enabled  to  do  so  by  first  de- 
positing a  preliminary  fee  as  evidence  of  good  faith, 


3i6          FIRE    PREVENTION 

and  on  completion  of  the  work  paying  the  balance 
of  its  cost  as  shown  by  accurate  records  thereof, 
which  are  kept  in  detail.  As  a  warrant  that  an  ap- 
plicant will  not  incur  costs  beyond  his  expectations, 
a  limit  of  expense  is  fixed  in  each  case  beyond  which 
charges  are  not  made.  By  this  means  an  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  anyone  at  comparatively  low  cost 
to  secure  the  opinion  of  the  recognised  authorities 
covering  any  device,  system  or  material  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  fire  hazard. 

*  The  amounts  of  the  fees  are  in  proportion  to 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  required  in 
examinations  and  tests.  The  cost  of  experimental 
work  is  practically  the  same  in  each  class  of  device, 
whether  samples  show  superior  or  inferior  qualities. 

4  The  applicant's  obligation  to  pay  the  charges  is 
not,  therefore,  contingent  upon  the  nature  of  the 
opinion  rendered — whether  favourable  or  otherwise. 
The  schedule  of  charges  found  necessary  in  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  work  is  arranged  by  groups 
as  follows: 


Amount  of  Total  cost  to  applicant 
preliminary  fee        not  to  exceed 

Group  A $100.00  $250.00 

Group  B 50.00  100.00 

Group  C 25.00  75-oo 

Group  D 10.00  50.00 

Group  E 5-00  25.00 


LAW   MAKING  317 

'  The  laboratories  will  upon  application,  accom- 
panied by  description  of  the  article  to  be  tested,  ad- 
vise as  to  necessary  charges  in  each  case.  These 
costs  cover  one  examination  and  test  or  series  of 
tests  on  one  pattern  of  device,  system,  method  or 
material  only.  Where  costs  do  not  aggregate  the 
amount  of  the  preliminary  fee,  the  balance  will  be 
returned  to  the  applicant.  Group  F.  Under  this 
group  is  classified  experimental  work  and  researches 
covering  subjects  or  appliances  for  which  standard 
requirements  are  not  adopted.  The  amount  of  the 
preliminary  fee  is  $100,  and  bills  are  rendered 
monthly  as  the  work  proceeds. 

"  Blank  forms  for  use  in  making  applications  for 
tests  will  be  furnished  on  request.  Tests  are  made 
following  the  order  in  which  preliminary  fees  are 
paid,  work  being  begun  usually  within  ten  days  fol- 
lowing payment  of  the  fee,  in  case  the  article  to  be 
tested  is  delivered  to  the  laboratories  in  time. 
Manufacturers  and  owners  are  welcome  at  the 
laboratories  during  the  progress  of  tests  upon  their 
appliances.  Advance  notices  of  the  time  of  mak- 
ing tests  are  not  sent,  however,  except  upon  request. 

"  In  the  case  of  articles  or  systems  involving  a 
number  of  structural  parts,  or  where  large  expense 
would  be  incurred  for  shipment,  preliminary  re- 


318          FIRE    PREVENTION 

ports  will  be  made  upon  receipt  of  fee  accompany- 
ing drawings  and  complete  description.  Complete 
examinations  and  tests  of  systems  and  machines  will 
be  made  where  installed  at  additional  cost  for  engi- 
neer's travelling  expenses  to  and  from  nearest 
branch  office  of  the  laboratories,  or  to  and  from 
the  principal  office  at  Chicago. 

"  One  sample  of  a  large  appliance  is  generally 
sufficient  for  test  purposes,  but  in  a  number  of 
cases,  especially  those  covering  the  smaller  devices, 
various  numbers  are  required,  depending  upon  the 
tests  prescribed  for  the  class.  Application  for 
examinations  and  tests  should  be  accompanied  by 
description  of  the  device  or  material  sufficient  to 
determine  the  nature  of  the  test  to  which  it  must  be 
subjected,  and  advices  will  then  be  given  as  to  the 
number  and  size  of  appliances  or  amount  of  ma- 
terial required. 

"  The  time  required  for  the  completion  of  test 
work  varies  from  ten  days  to  six  months,  depend- 
ing upon  the  test  specifications  of  the  class.  For 
appliances  not  classified  no  assurances  as  to  the 
length  of  time  necessary  to  complete  the  work  can  be 
given.  •  Records  of  the  lest  five  thousand  appliances 
examined,  tested  and  reported  on,  show  an  average 
time,  between  the  receipt  of  the  sample  and  the  is- 


LAW    MAKING  319 

suance  of  the  report,  of  approximately  one  month. 
"  At  the  conclusion  of  examinations  and  tests,  the 
results  thereof,  whether  favourable  or  otherwise,  are 
bulletined  to  the  various  insurance  orgnaisations 
and  companies  subscribing  to  or  co-operating  with 
the  laboratories'  work,  and  a  copy  of  this  bulletin 
and  the  detailed  report  is  furnished  the  applicant. 
A  statement  of  the  balance  of  the  cost  of  the  work 
(above  the  amount  of  the  preliminary  fee)  is  ren- 
dered, which  is  due  on  presentation.  The  charges 
made  in  the  laboratories'  work  do  not  include  cost 
incident  to  extension  of  credit  or  the  allowance  of 
discount  Wherever  approvals  are  granted,  on  the 
more  common  classes  of  devices,  the  names  of  the 
manufacturers  thereof  are  placed  in  printed  lists, 
distributed  freely  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters,  and  in  some  classes  the  devices  are 
labelled  as  described  below.  Many  of  the  leading 
organisations  and  authorities  are  at  the  present 
time  using  these  lists  or  recognising  the  labels  as  the 
basis  of  their  recommendations  or  requirements. 

"  Whenever  approvals  of  appliances  are  ready  to 
issue,  one  of  two  forms  of  supervision  over  the 
article  to  be  marked  is  required  under  such  ap- 
proval. 

"  The  older  of  these  forms  is  a  contract  to  be 


320          FIRE    PREVENTION 

entered  into  between  the  manufacturer  and  Under- 
writers' Laboratories,  Inc.,  whereby  the  maker 
agrees  during  the  continuance  of  the  laboratories' 
approval  to  construct  appliances  in  exact  duplicate 
of  the  sample  approved,  and  to  pay  certain  fees 
annually  (ranging  from  five  to  thirty  dollars),  with 
which  the  laboratories  partially  defrays  the  cost  of 
re-examinations  made  from  time  to  time  upon 
sample  appliances  secured  from  stocks  offered  for 
sale. 

"  The  newer  form  of  supervision,  which  is  con- 
sidered superior  by  the  laboratories'  management, 
and  which  is  being  introduced  as  rapidly  as  feasible, 
consists  in  inspections  by  laboratories'  engineers  of 
devices  and  materials  at  factories  and  the  labelling 
of  standard  goods  by  stamps,  transfers  or  metal 
labels,  whereby  they  can  be  recognised  wherever 
found.  By  means  of  this  service  the  quality  of 
goods  in  factories  where  approved  articles  are  made 
is  carefully  observed,  and  the  use  of  labels  re- 
stricted to  such  portion  of  the  output  as  meets  in  all 
essentials  the  standard  of  efficiency  shown  by  the 
sample  originally  tested  and  on  which  approval  was 
based. 

"  Experience  has  shown  that  this  method  is  in 
every  way  superior  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  to 


LAW    MAKING  321 

the  consumer  the  article  he  desires,  for  the  purpose 
of  placing  competition  between  manufacturers  be- 
yond the  point  where  deterioration  in  the  quality  of 
the  output  is  made  necessary,  and  for  the  proper 
protection  of  the  laboratories  and  the  organisations 
co-operating  with  them,  which  are  given  substantial 
recognition  to  efficient  fire  protection  appliances. 

"  It  is  also  shown  that  an  inspection  and  check- 
ing system  of  this  nature  can  be  efficiently  operated 
under  the  laboratories'  direction  without  calling 
upon  the  manufacturer  to  give  undue  publicity  to 
his  manufacturing  process  or  subjecting  him  to  any 
embarrassment  or  annoyance.  The  cost  of  this 
service  is  partially  defrayed  by  charges  made  for 
the  labels.  These  charges  vary  according  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  inspection  needed.  For 
goods  which  can  be  tested  by  machinery  or  which 
are  machine  made  and  run  through  factories  in  such 
quantities  that  tests  of  a  number  of  samples  of  each 
day's  output  give  a  fair  criterion  of  the  whole  pro- 
duct, the  charges  run  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar 
and  a  half  per  thousand  labels.  For  goods  made 
by  hand  and  goods  which  require  inspection  or  test 
of  each  individual  item,  the  charges  run  from  seven 
and  one-half  cents  to  twenty-five  cents  per  label.  In 
no  case  is  the  cost  of  the  inspection  service  as  repre- 


322  FIRE    PREVENTION 

sented  by  the  charge  for  the  label  sufficient  to  be- 
come a  factor  of  importance  in  determining  the  sell- 
ing price  of  the  article  labelled. 

4  The  prices  charged  for  the  labels  include  the 
following  costs : 

'  ( i )     Cost  of  manufacturing  the  label. 

"  (2)  Salaries  and  expenses  of  agents  and  in- 
spectors at  branch  offices. 

'*  (3)  Salary  of  supervising  engineer  at  home 
office. 

;'  (4)  Salary  and  travelling  expenses  of  special 
agent. 

4  (5)      Overhead  charges. 

'*  The  extension  of  the  factory  inspection  and 
label  service  has  made  it  necessary  to  establish 
branch  offices  of  the  laboratories  in  many  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
thus  bringing  a  representative  near  to  everyone  in 
these  cities  who  may  have  business  with  or  wish  to 
make  inquiries  covering  the  organisation  and  its 
work.  The  agents  in  charge  may  be  freely  con- 
sulted in  reference  to  any  material  or  appliance 
which  has  been  submitted  for  examination." 

The  underwriters  who  maintain  this  organisation 
for  the  study  of  fire  problems  have  also  issued  a 
practical  building  code  which,  with  minor  varia- 


LAW    MAKING  323 

tions,  according  to  locality  or  special  conditions, 
might  well  be  imitated  by  the  buildings  codes  of 
States  and  cities  the  country  over.  Here,  as  else- 
where, standards  are  to  be  sought  and  prized;  if 
building  codes  were  universal,  at  least  in  their 
major  provisions,  there  would  be  a  great  deal  less 
confusion  and  a  step  in  the  right  direction  would 
have  been  taken. 

It  is  certainly  a  mistake  to  believe  .that  nothing 
can  be  done  by  law  to  stop  the  fire  hazard.  There 
are,  unfortunately,  many  persons  in  every  com- 
munity so  careless  or  so  selfish  that  they  are  quite 
willing  to  neglect  or  wilfully  disregard  the  safety 
of  others,  if  they  believe  that  it  will  be  for  their 
pecuniary  advantage  to  do  so.  This  type  of  per- 
son is  usually,  however,  one  who  stands  in  whole- 
some dread  of  the  law  and  is  willing  to  comply  with 
its  provisions  once  they  have  been  called  to  his  at- 
tention. If  he  is  not  willing  to  comply,  the  simple 
and  obvious  remedy  remains  of  forcing  him  to  do 
so.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  law  in  relation  to 
fire  exerts  a  wholesome  influence  in  addition  to  the 
power  which  it  gives  to  the  proper  authorities  to 
enforce  the  provisions  for  safety  and  fire  preven- 
tion with  the  particular  municipality  or  State  or 
community  may  have.  By  all  means  let  us  have 


324  FIRE    PREVENTION 

laws  in  regard  to  fires.  The  question  is  next  in  re- 
lation to  the  nature  of  these  laws.  Of  course,  it 
would  be  idle  for  me  to  attempt  t^  lay  down  the 
text  of  ordinances  in  this  regard  or  to  prescribe 
statutes  which  would  prove  beneficial  to  each  and 
every  environment,  but  it  might  be  well  to  suggest 
some  of  the  subjects  concerning  which  specific  laws 
are  likely  to  prove  helpful  in  ridding  the  country 
of  its  burden  of  annual  blood  money  extorted  by 
the  tyrannous  hand  of  fire.  Many  cities  and  States 
have  such  laws  at  present,  others  are  in  the  process 
of  enacting  them;  still  others  have  recognised  the 
necessity  of  them,  and  will  soon  act. 

One  of  the  first  laws  that  I  would  advocate  would 
be  one  against  the  use  of  matches  of  the  non-safety 
type.  Surprisingly  few  States  or  cities  have  any 
such  ordinances,  although  among  them  New  York 
is,  I  am  glad  to  say,  included.  The  other  States 
and  cities  which  are  provided  with  legislation  in 
this  regard  might  almost  be  counted  on  the  fingers 
of  one  hand.  This  is  all  the  more  surprising,  as 
statistics  clearly  show  that  an  enormous  percentage 
of  each  year's  fires  is  caused  by  matches,  either 
through  careless  handling  or  improper  manufac- 
ture. The  so-called  parlour  match  is  a  veritable 
menace  wherever  it  appears,  and,  in  my  opinion, 


LAW   MAKING  325 

the  country  would  be  better  off  if  its  manufacture  as 
well  as  its  use  were  universally  prohibited.  More 
destructive  fires  are  directly  chargable  to  this  one 
cause  than  to  any  other  in  the  list  of  assignable 
causes.  Matches  of  the  wrong  type  should  be 
classed  among  the  most  dangerous  materials;  they 
present  more  of  an  actual  hazard  in  some  ways  than 
explosives,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  not  re- 
garded with  any  awe,  and  are  therefore  handled 
carelessly. 

The  storage  and  handling  of  explosives  is  an- 
other matter  which  should  come  under  legal  regula- 
tion. In  many  cities  it  now  is  subject  to  ordinances. 
It  should  be  so  in  all.  In  the  constantly  growing 
activity  of  building  operations  all  over  the  country 
and  the  blasting  and  excavation  necessarily  involved 
therein,  the  use  of  explosives  of  one  sort  or  another 
is  greatly  increasing.  Nowadays  we  even  hear  ser- 
ious plans  for  ploughing  and  stump  blowing  by  the 
use  of  dynamite,  a  practice  which,  if  it  becomes 
widespread,  will  vastly  extend  the  use  of  this 
dangerous  though  useful  material.  Not  only  the 
use  of  high  explosives  of  this  character,  but  also 
their  method  of  packing  and  storing  should  be  sub- 
ject to  the  strictest  sort  of  regulation.  Fires  re- 
sulting from  explosions  are  usually  serious  ones,  and 


326  FIRE    PREVENTION 

in  addition  to  the  money  loss  which  they  involve, 
they  are  frequently  attended  by  loss  of  life. 

Regulations  of  law  in  this  regard  should  by  no 
means  be  limited  to  substances  ordinarily  classified 
as  "  explosives."  Many  chemicals  and  fluids  used 
commercially  or  in  certain  processes,  such  as  clean- 
ing, properly  fall  under  this  head.  They,  or  the 
gases  which  they  freely  give  off,  are  of  a  highly  com- 
bustible character  and  a  number  of  them  will,  if  con- 
fined, cause  explosions  quite  as  serious  as  dynamite 
itself.  Articles  of  this  kind  include  such  fluids  as 
benzine,  gasolene,  naphtha,  and  various  other  fluids. 
The  large  cleaning  establishments  are  frequent  of- 
fenders against  safety  in  the  matter  of  their  use  of 
such  materials,  and  there  should  be  rigid  regula- 
tions concerning  not  only  the  storage  of  their  sup- 
ply, but  also  the  amount  which  may  be  exposed  in 
cleaning  machines  and  open  trays,  and  the  kind  of 
buildings  in  which  operations  of  this  nature  may 
properly  be  conducted.  The  storage  of  gasolene 
in  this  day  of  the  automobile  is  also  a  matter  full 
of  risk  and  well  suited  to  legal  restriction. 

I  have  already  emphasised  the  dangers  which  re- 
sult from  the  accumulation  of  rubbish  and  waste 
material  of  various  sorts.  Few  factors  in  the  fire 
risk  are  more  productive  of  evil,  and  few  are  more 


LAW    MAKING  327 

easily  and  justly  open  to  correction.  The  careless- 
ness and  untidiness  which  result  in  conditions  of  this 
sort  are  in  themselves  dangerous  traits,  which 
should  not  be  encouraged  but  discouraged  by  laws 
making  the  presence  of  refuse  a  misdemeanour  or 
even  a  felony.  A  few  strong  regulations  of  this 
sort  would  go  far  toward  the  reduction  of  this  par- 
ticular hazard.  Old  rags,  waste  paper,  cotton 
waste  and  scraps  of  cloth  are  all  substances  full  of 
risk,  and  everything  possible  should  be  done  to  keep 
down  their  accumulation,  especially  in  cities.  The 
fact  that  the  greatest  quantity  of  them  is  usually  to 
be  found  in  the  very  portions  of  a  city  where  their 
presence  is  most  dangerous,  the  more  combustibly 
constructed  and  more  congested  portions,  but  adds 
to  the  danger. 

Among  the  substances  which  may  be  classified 
with  rubbish  from  the  point  of  view  of  risk,  are 
packing  materials  of  different  kinds.  Excelsior, 
shavings,  sawdust  and  the  like  are  very  widely 
used,  and  are,  of  course,  necessary  to  many  busi- 
nesses. But  they  cannot  be  looked  on  with  a  fav- 
ourable eye  by  the  man  who  is  interested  in  reducing 
the  fire  dangers  in  his  community,  and  the  rules  as 
to  their  use  should  be  carefully  drawn  and  rigidly 
enforced.  Under  most  conditions  the  householder 


328  FIRE    PREVENTION 

stands  in  peril  of  forfeiting  his  insurance  if  he  al- 
lows inflammable  substances,  such  as  excelsior,  to 
remain  in  his  cellar.  Why  is  it  not  logical  to  forbid 
their  storage  in  still  larger  quantities  in  factories 
and  mercantile  buildings,  which  are  ordinarily  so 
situated  as  to  be  even  greater  danger  points  to  the 
city?  Bailed  excelsior,  like  bailed  hay,  harbours  a 
smouldering  fire  in  a  way  which  makes  extinguish- 
ment peculiarly  difficult,  and  firemen  look  on  build- 
ings in  which  this  substance  is  known  to  be  with 
small  favour.  I  remember  a  certain  building  just 
at  the  head  of  the  Bowery,  New  York,  in  which 
excelsior  was  stored,  which  had  three  distinct  fires 
in  a  period  of  six  months.  None  of  them  was  a 
blaze  of  little  moment  and  quick  work  on  the  part 
of  the  fire-fighters  was  necessary  to  save  the  struc- 
ture in  each  case. 

Cellars  and  sub-cellars  present  in  many  cases 
what  might  be  termed  special  hazards.  Persons 
seem  to  have  the  entirely  erroneous  idea  that  a 
cellar  is  an  excellent  place  to  stow  away  all  sorts 
of  undesirable  material,  and  under  such  a  scheme 
of  things  it  easily  becomes  little  better  than  a  junk 
heap.  This,  of  course,  is  entirely  wrong.  Cel- 
lars, at  best,  are  difficult  to  get  at  and  present  a 
hard  problem  to  the  firemen.  A  fire  in  one  is  well 


LAW    MAKING  329 

placed  to  make  an  ascent  through  the  entire  building 
before  it  can  be  brought  under  control.  For  these 
reasons,  if  for  no  other,  it  should  be  a  punishable 
offense  to  allow  cellars  to  remain  in  an  untidy  or 
cluttered  condition.  The  fact  that  coal  is  usually 
stored  in  them  only  makes  matters  worse. 

I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  much  good 
would  come  of  a  law  looking  to  the  better  protec- 
tion of  all  houses  used  for  residence,  from  the 
menace  of  their  cellars.  Tenement  houses  in  par- 
ticular should  be  thus  protected.  No  opening 
should  be  permitted  from  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing into  the  cellar,  which  should  only  be  entered 
from  outside  the  building,  preferably  on  the  street 
side.  Moreover,  there  should  be  a  fireproof  floor 
or  partition  between  the  cellar  and  the  basement, 
that  is  to  say  the  cellar  ceiling  should  be  fireproof 
in  all  cases.  Such  a  requirement  would  prevent  the 
spread  of  fires  originating  in  cellars,  from  sponta- 
neous combustion  or  any  other  causes,  up  through 
the  house.  At  present  they  have  every  chance  of 
eating  through  the  basement  floor  as  well  as  being 
drawn  up  through  the  stairwells  and  the  dumbwaiter 
shafts  which  form  convenient  flues  for  the  flames. 
A  law  covering  this  matter  would  do  away  with  a 
great  many  smoky  and  dangerous  fires  which  now 


330          FIRE    PREVENTION 

menace  the  crowded  tenement  house  sections  of 
cities.  So  common  are  fires  of  this  kind  on  the 
East  Side  in  New  York  that  when  an  alarm  from 
the  crowded  human  hive  east  of  the  Bowery  came 
into  my  quarters  in  Great  Jones  Street  at  night,  I 
could  feel  positive  almost,  that  it  was  another  "  cel- 
lar "  without  paying  a  visit  to  the  scene. 

Of  course  electric  wiring  should  be  regulated 
legally.  It  is  a  sure  source  of  danger  unless  it  is 
properly  installed,  and  there  are  so  many  persons 
who  are  entirely  willing  to  take  chances  for  the 
sake  of  saving  a  few  dollars  in  original  cost,  that 
the  law  should  step  in  and  make  any  such  chance- 
taking  exceedingly  unpleasant  for  the  gamblers 
against  the  risk  of  trouble.  Wiring  is,  of  course, 
perfectly  safe  if  it  is  properly  done.  The  regula- 
tions of  the  insurance  companies  go  far  to  bring 
about  good  installation,  but,  in  addition,  the  au- 
thority of  the  law  should  by  all  means  be  added. 

In  the  building  codes  of  cities  or  of  States,  pro- 
visions for  the  protection  of  life  are  vitally  neces- 
sary. Building  codes  are  admittedly  difficult  things 
to  draw  up  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  for  the  owners 
of  some  form  of  building  material  are  nearly  always 
ready  to  complain  that  they  have  been  discriminated 
against.  Difficult  or  not,  the  task  of  perfecting  its 


LAW   MAKING  331 

building  code  is  of  prime  importance  to  any  com- 
munity,  and  the  authorities  which  have  this  vital 
matter  in  hand  should  err  on  the  safe  side  of  strict- 
ness rather  than  of  laxity.     Conflict  of  regulations 
should  be  carefully  avoided  in  all  cases  where  more 
than  one  authority  or  law-drafting  body  concerns 
itself  with  the  same  subject.     The  provisions  of  the 
building  code  proper  should,  of  course,  not  come  in 
conflict  with  the  regulations  of  the  fire  department 
put  forward  by  its  fire  prevention  bureau,  or  with 
the  tenement  house  law  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  fire. 
In  cases  of  this  kind  I  am  strongly  in  favour  of 
centralisation  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  experts, 
and  if  the  fire  department  is  not  to  have  the  com- 
plete charge  of  all  matters  in  relation  to  the  fire 
hazard,  its  experts  and  chief  officers  should,  at  any 
rate,  be  consulted  by  whatever  body  has  this  work 
in  hand.     Much   good  can,   of  course,   be   accom- 
plished even  if  a  number  of  different  organisations  or 
divisions  of  the  municipal  powers  that  be,  are  con- 
cerned in  the  matter  and   each  provides   its  own 
rules,  but  the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  have 
one  set  of  lawmakers  and  one  set  of  regulations 
covering  all  the  classes  of  buildings  found  in  the 
community  in  question. 

In  many  respects  the  tenement  house  law  of  New 


332          FIRE   PREVENTION 

York  City  is  admirable,  in  its  treatment  of  fire  ques- 
tions, though  it  has  certain  provisions  which  I 
believe  to  be  lax,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  fire- 
escape  requirements,  which  call  only  for  three-foot 
balconies  and  stairways  of  not  more  than  sixty  de- 
grees angle.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  law  can  be 
recommended  as  a  model  for  other  cities. 

It  contains,  for  instance,  a  provision  such  as  I 
have  mentioned  in  regard  to  cellar  stairs,  applying 
it,  however,  only  to  non-fireproof  tenements.  In 
fireproof  tenements  it  permits  inside  cellar  stairs, 
provided  they  do  not  open  under  the  stairs  to  upper 
stories,  and  are  cut  off,  by  fireproof  partitions  with 
self-closing  doors,  from  the  portion  of  the  cellar 
used  for  the  storage  of  fuel  and  for  the  boilers  or 
other  machinery.  Some  of  its  sections  which  are  to 
be  recommended  are  as  follows: 

"  In  tenement  houses  hereafter  erected,  in  all 
walls  where  wooden  furring  is  used,  all  courses  of 
brick  from  the  under  side  of  the  floor  beams  to  the 
top  of  the  same,  shall  project  a  distance  of  at  least 
two  inches  beyond  the  inside  face  of  the  wall  so  as 
to  provide  an  effective  fire  stop ;  and  wherever  floor 
beams  run  parallel  to  a  wall  and  wooden  furring  is 
used,  such  beams  shall  always  be  kept  at  least  two 
and  one-half  inches  away  from  the  inside  line  of  the 


LAW    MAKING  333 

wall,  and  the  space  between  the  beams  and  the  wall 
shall  be  built  up  solidly  with  brick  work  from  the 
under  side  of  the  floor  beams  to  the  top  of  the  same, 
so  as  to  form  an  effective  fire  stop. 

"  In  tenement  houses  hereafter  erected  which 
either  are  occupied  or  are  arranged  to  be  occupied 
by  more  than  two  families  on  any  floor,  or  which 
exceed  four  stories  and  cellar  in  height,  the  stair 
halls  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof  materials 
throughout.  The  risers,  strings  and  banisters  shall 
be  of  metal  or  stone,  or  of  hardwood  not  less  than 
two  inches  thick  ('wood  should  not  be  allowed'). 
The  floors  of  all  such  stair  halls  shall  be  constructed 
of  iron  or  steel  beams  and  fireproof  filling  and  no 
wooden  flooring  or  sleepers  shall  be  permitted. 
Wooden  handrails  to  stairs  will  be  permitted  if 
constructed  of  hardwood.  All  stair  halls  shall  be 
enclosed  on  all  sides  with  brick  walls.  The  doors 
opening  from  such  stair  halls  shall  be  fireproof  and 
self-closing,  and  if  provided  with  glass,  such  glass 
shall  be  good  quality  wire  glass. 

"  There  shall  be  no  transom  or  movable  sash 
opening  from  such  stair  hall  to  any  other  part  of 
the  house.  Each  stair  hall  shall  be  shut  off  from 
all  non-fireproof  portions  of  the  public  halls  and 
from  all  other  nonfireproof  parts  of  the  building 


334          FIRE    PREVENTION 

on  each  story  by  self-closing  fireproof  doors,  and 
if  glass  is  used  in  such  doors  it  shall  be  of  good 
quality  wire  glass. 

"  Every  apartment  above  the  ground  floor  in  each 
tenement  house  shall  have  a  fire-escape  derictly  ac- 
cessible to  it  without  passing  through  a  public  hall. 
All  balconies  shall  be  properly  connected  with  each 
other  by  adequate  stairs  or  stationary  ladders,  with 
openings  not  less  than  twenty-one  by  twenty-eight 
inches.  All  fire-escapes  not  on  the  street  shall  have 
a  safe  and  adequate  means  of  egress  from  the  yard 
or  court  to  the  street  or  to  the  adjoining  premises. 

"  Every  tenement  house  hereafter  erected  shall 
have  in  the  roof  a  fireproof  bulkhead  with  a  fire- 
proof door  to  the  same,  and  shall  have  fireproof 
stairs  with  a  guide  or  handrail  leading  to  the  roof. 
Every  such  house  shall  have  at  least  one  flight  of 
stairs  extending  from  the  entrance  floor  to  the  roof, 
the  stairs  and  public  halls  therein  shall  each  be  at 
least  three  feet  wide,  in  the  clear.  No  scuttle  and 
no  bulkhead  door  shall  at  any  time  be  locked  with  a 
key,  but  either  may  be  fastened  on  the  inside  by 
movable  bolts  or  hooks.  All  key  locks  on  scuttles 
and  on  bulkhead  doors  shall  be  removed.  No 
stairs  leading  to  the  roof  in  any  tenement  house 
shall  be  removed  and  replaced  with  a  ladder. 


LAW   MAKING  335 

Every  bulkhead  hereafter  constructed  in  a  now 
existing  tenement  house  shall  be  constructed  as  here- 
tofore provided.  All  shafts  shall  be  constructed 
fireproof  throughout,  with  fireproof  self-closing 
doors  at  all  openings,  and  each  story,  except  window 
openings  in  vent  shafts;  and  if  they  extend  to  the 
cellar,  shall  also  be  enclosed  in  the  cellar  with  fire- 
proof self-closing  doors  at  all  openings. 

"  In  no  case  shall  any  shaft  be  constructed  of 
materials  of  which  any  inflammable  material  or  sub- 
stance enters  into  any  of  the  component  parts.  No 
bakery  and  no  place  of  business  in  which  fat  is 
boiled  shall  be  maintained  in  any  tenement  house 
which  is  not  fireproof  throughout,  unless  the  ceiling, 
sidewalls  and  all  exposed  iron  or  wooden  girders  or 
columns,  within  the  said  bakery  or  within  said  place 
where  fat  boiling  is  done,  are  made  safe  by  fire- 
proof materials  around  the  same.  All  transoms 
and  windows  openings  into  halls  from  any  portion 
of  a  tenement  house  where  paint,  oils,  spirituous 
liquors  or  drugs  are  stored  for  the  purpose  of  sale 
or  otherwise,  shall  be  glazed  with  wire  glass  or 
they  shall  be  removed  and  closed  up  as  solidly  as 
the  rest  of  the  wall;  and  all  doors  leading  into  any 
such  hall  from  such  portion  of  said  house  shall  be 
made  fireproof.' 


336          FIRE    PREVENTION 

That  there  should  be  special  laws  governing  places 
of  amusement  and  recreation  goes  without  say- 
ing. From  the  nature  of  their  use,  places  of  this 
character  are  necessarily  congested.  One  Iroquois 
fire  should  be  sufficient  for  a  number  of  generations, 
to  say  the  least,  and  should  teach  the  lesson  of  fire 
prevention  and  its  legal  requirements  with  perfect 
lucidity.  Many  of  the  present  day  moving  picture 
theatres  where  the  poor  find  their  recreation,  are 
the  merest  death  traps.  The  danger  of  the  films 
used  and  the  intense  heat  of  the  lights  which  project 
the  pictures  on  the  screen  bring  these  places  into  the 
category  of  special  hazards.  They  should  have 
specially  rigid  restrictions  and  regulations  for  the 
protection  of  the  public.  It  may  be  said  that  panic 
will  overcome  the  effects  of  the  best  regulations,  and 
this,  unfortunatel,  is  to  some  degree  true — certainly 
the  dire  nature  of  panic  in  places  of  this  sort  was 
clearly  shown  in  the  recent  Pennsylvania  fire  which 
was  the  cause  of  many  needless  deaths  and  injuries. 
But  it  is  the  business  of  those  who  have  the  safety  of 
humanity  in  mind  to  make  provision  for  the  ac- 
tions of  fools  and  madmen  as  far  as  possible,  so 
that  if  some  wretch  who  sees  a  whisp  of  smoke 
chooses  to  jump  up  and  shout  "  Fire !  "  setting  a 
whole  audience  in  an  uproar,  there  may,  at  least,  be 


LAW   MAKING  337 

ample  exit  facilities  to  take  care  of  the  stampede 
which  is  practically  certain  to  follow.  In  this  way  the 
law  can  exercise  a  beneficial  influence,  even  on  such 
uncontrolable  things  as  panics. 

The  construction  of  school  houses  should  receive 
special  attention  from  those  who  draft  the  laws,  so 
that  escapes  and  exits  in  plenty  may  be  provided.  I 
believe  that  in  addition,  it  would  be  an  excellent 
thing  if  there  were  a  legal  requirement  for  fire  drills 
in  every  public  school  throughout  the  land.  This 
would  certainly  tend  to  minimise  the  chances  of  a 
repetition  of  the  disaster  at  Collingwood,  Ohio, 
where  so  many  scores  of  little  children  lost  their 
lives.  Of  course  similar  drills  should  be  incumbent 
on  the  owners  of  all  factories  or  workshops  and  the 
employees  of  labour  generally,  as  has  been  shown  in 
a  previous  chapter.  With  many  such  persons  the 
authority  of  the  law,  however,  would  alone  force 
them  to  undertake  such  reforms,  and  for  this  reason 
it  should  be  invoked.  Greed  which  leads  to  a  dis- 
regard of  human  life  should  be  combated  with 
force  if  necessary. 

One  of  the  fertile  danger  spots  in  any  large  city, 
and  especially  in  the  city  of  New  York,  is  the  use 
of  quick-burning  materials  in  the  many  sweatshops 
and  factories,  crowded  with  working  people  and 


338  FIRE    PREVENTION 

often  inadequately  supplied  with  exit  facilities  and 
with  fire  appliances.  If  one  looks  into  the  windows 
of  buildings  where  work  of  this  kind  is  carried  on, 
he  will  frequently  see  large  piles  of  such  flimsy  stuff 
as  lawn  in  various  parts  of  the  floors  and  even 
spread  out  over  the  machines  or  benches  at  which 
the  employees  work.  Sometimes  strips  and  pieces 
of  unfinished  and  finished  goods  are  hung  on  strings 
or  wires  between  the  rows  of  machines,  forming 
long  festoons  of  peril. 

The  smallest  blaze  runs  like  wild-fire  through  an 
arrangement  of  this  sort  and  the  whole  room  may 
be  in  flames,  apparently,  in  less  time  than  it  takes 
to  write  it.  This  condition  is  full  of  danger  and  it 
should  be  made  the  subject  of  municipal  or  State 
prohibition.  I  have  frequently  seen  such  a  state  of 
affairs  in  workshops  both  during  working  hours  and 
after  they  were  closed  for  the  night.  At  the  latter 
time  the  danger  to  life  was,  of  course,  eliminated, 
but  the  setting  was  ideal  for  the  start  of  a  fire 
from  any  of  a  hundred  and  one  possible  causes,  and 
the  chances  were  that  it  would  gain  dangerous 
headway  before  anything  material  could  be  done  to 
stop  it. 

In  addition  to  laws  concerning  these  special  risks 
and  classes  of  buildings,  and  a  dozen  others  which 


LAW    MAKING  339 

could  be  mentioned,  general  laws  which  have  bearing 
on  the  fire  hazard  are  greatly  to  be  desired.  Under 
this  had  would  fall  the  regulation  of  congestion  of 
population,  the  proper  maintenance  of  streets  and 
the  conferring  of  very  full  powers  of  right  of  way 
upon  all  the  apparatus  of  the  fire  department. 
But  more  important,  perhaps,  than  any  of  the 
special  or  general  laws  in  themselves,  is  the  matter 
of  the  attitude  of  the  authorities  toward  fire  in  the 
degree  of  law  enforcement  which  prevails  in  the  par- 
ticular community.  The  whole  purpose  of  a  law  is 
obviously  rendered  futile  if  it  be  not  rigidly  en- 
forced and  lived  up  to.  Citizens  should  know  that 
if  they  infringe  the  regulations  of  the  city  in  which 
they  live,  the  punishment  which  they  have  mer- 
ited will  not  be  delayed,  or  even  avoided  alto- 
gether by  the  shifting  of  responsibility  among  the 
Carious  powers  whose  duty  it  is  to  bring  them  to 
justice.  Much  of  the  value  of  a  heavy  penalty 
for  lawlessness  or  law  evasion  in  fire  matters  lies  in 
the  promptitude  and  certainty  with  which  it  is  in- 
flicted. The  reflex,  to  be  effective  in  the  special 
case  and  as  a  deterent  in  future  cases,  should  be 
immediate. 

To  anyone  who  studies  the  matter  impartially  it 
must  be  apparent  that  the  reason  Berlin  has  but  one- 


340          FIRE    PREVENTION 

forty-seventh  the  annual  fire  loss  of  Chicago,  a  city 
of  almost  equal  population,  cannot  be  merely  that 
the  German  city  is  better  built  or  provided  with  a 
better  fire  department.  Indeed,  many  of  the  for- 
eign fire-fighting  appliances  are  little  better  than 
their  name  in  their  native  tongue,  "  squirts,"  implies. 
The  reason  is  to  be  sought  in  a  very  different  di- 
rection. It  is  closely  bound  up  with  the  attitude  of 
the  authorities  toward  the  fire  risk;  with  the  strin- 
gent rules  which  are  implacably  enforced,  and  with 
the  dread  of  having  a  fire  on  his  premises,  for  other 
than  mere  financial  reasons,  which  the  citizen  of 
Berlin  has  thus  developed. 

Force  of  example  is  as  much  of  a  power  in  fire 
prevention  as  in  any  other  department  of  life,  and 
nothing  will  do  more  to  reduce  fire  losses  than  a 
few  convictions  for  carelessness  or  lawbreaking  of 
a  wilful  nature.  More  such  convictions  would  be 
an  inestimable  boon  to  this  country;  but  they  can- 
not be  had  until,  first,  we  have  the  laws  to  break, 
and,  secondly,  until  we  have  the  courage  and  the  ma- 
chinery to  enforce  those  laws.  It  is  for  this  reason 
chiefly  that  I  believe  the  legislator  and  the  law- 
drafter,  the  compilers  of  building  codes  and  the 
makes  of  fire  prevention  regulations,  have  at  once 
a  heavy  responsibility  and  an  unusual  opportunity  to 


LAW   MAKING  341 

be  of  real  service  to  their  fellow  men  in  this  country. 
Let  them  approach  their  task  in  the  serious  spirit 
for  which  it  calls,  and  let  them  do  their  work  unin- 
fluenced by  any  considerations,  political  or  other- 
wise, and  under  the  advice  and  guidance  of  experts 
in  these  matters,  and  they  will  go  far  toward  putting 
the  United  States  in  the  position  among  the  nations 
which  she  should  hold,  that  of  not  merely  the  great- 
est builder  and  the  most  rapid  expender  in  all  the 
lines  of  industry,  but  of  the  greatest  conserver,  as 
well,  of  the  fruit  of  energies  which  she  has  expended 
and  the  great  work  which  she  has  done. 


THE  END 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Alarm    boxes    in    New    York, 

208-209 

boxes,    location    and    mark- 
ings, 58 

"manual"  type,  137 
devices,  133 
system,   wiring  for,   59 
system   of   New  York   City, 

156 

system,    watchmen,    141-143 
system,  private,   79 
systems,      maintenance      of, 

61 

Alarms,  automatic,  133-148 
responding  to,  171,  185 
transmitted  by  sprinkler 

system,   131 
Apparatus,     combination      for 

small  cities,  48 
for  city  departments,   174 
for     private     organizations, 

81 

primitive,   55 
required    for    small    towns, 

52-53 

Architects,    marine,    for    plan- 
ning fire-boats,  236 

Arson,   epidemics   of,   302 
prevalence   and   difficulty   in 
detecting,    292-294 

Ashes,  proper   disposal  of,  26 

Assignment      of      fire      com- 
panies,   170 

Austin,    William    D.,    on    cost 
of   dwellings,    18 


Austria,  fire  loss  per  capita,  4 
Authority      of      fire      depart- 
ments, 167 

of    fire    marshals,    290 
of   fire   prevention   bureaus, 

281 
Automatic      doors      for     fire 

walls,    106 

fire  alarms,  40,   133-138 
Automobiles,    177 
Axes  and  hooks  for  fire  pre- 
vention,   144 


B 


"Backing  out"  orders,  196 

Baltimore  fire,  non-standard 
couplings  in,  65 

Baltimore's  great  fire,  42 

Belts   for  firemen,  196 

Berlin  fire  losses,  6 
great  fire  of  1405,  41 
method  of  fire  investigation, 
287 

Boards  of  Fire  Commission- 
ers, 161 

Boilers  for  fire-boats,  241 

Boston  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, report  on  small 
house  construction,  17 

Boston's  great  fire,  42 

Braithwaite,  George,  builder 
of  first  steam  fire  en- 
gine, 207 

Building   codes,  330 

Buildings,  heights,  regulation 
of,  97 


345 


346 


INDEX 


Bulletins  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  319 

Bunker  arrangements  for  fire- 
boats,  242 

Bureaus  of  fire  prevention, 
organisation,  duties  and 
powers,  273-282 

Bursting  hose,  194 


Candles  should  be  tabooed,  25 
Causes   of   fires   in   Nebraska, 

30-33 

of   fires,    investigating,   286 
Cellars,  regulations  for,  328 

ventilating  fires  in,   190 
Checking      fires      by     tearing 

down  buildings,   54 
Chemical    engines    for    small 

cities,  49 
fires,  197 
Chicago  fire  losses,  5 

incidents     of     incendiarism, 

303-305 

plant  of   Underwriters'   La- 
boratories, 313 
wooden  buildings  in,  22 
Chicago's  great  fire,  42 
Chief     merits      of      sprinkler 

systems,   no 
vs.    Commissioner    in    New 

York  City,  162 
Chimney  fires,  199 
Cincinnati   fire   losses,   5 
Civil    Service    in    fire    depart- 
ments, 152 
Cleaning    fluids,    proper    care 

of,  27 

Clocks,  recording,  141-143 
Collingwood,  O.,  school  house 

fire,  337 
Combination  ^  apparatus       for 

small  cities,  48 

Commissioners,      Boards       of 
Fire,   161 


Commissioners    vs.     Chief    in 

New  York  City,  162 
Concrete   houses,    18 
Constantinople,  great  fire  in,  41 
Construction      cost      vs.      fire 

losses,  3 
in  Europe  in   i8th  century, 

45 

of  fire-boats,  241 
of  fire  walls,  -04 
of  flues,  26 

of  pressure  tanks,   128 
of  proper   fire  escapes,   98- 

100 

regulations,  in  New  York, 
21 ;  Philadelphia,  21 ; 
Pittsburgh,  21 ;  Chicago, 

22 

Control    of    fire    departments, 

162-167 

Cost  of  maintenance  of   fire- 
boats,  258 
of  service  of  Underwriters' 

Laboratories,  321-322 
of  sprinkler  system,  118 
of  various  types  of  houses, 

17 
Couplings,  63,  64 

standard,  advantages  of,  65- 

66;  specifications  for,  67 
Croker,  Richard,  203 


Defective  flues,  25 
Defects  of  fire  escapes,  98 

of  fire  walls,  106 
Discipline  in  fire  departments, 

160 

Docks  for  fire-boats,  252 
Door,   fire,    72 
Doors,   forcing,   189 

should    swing   outward,   95 
Double   company   stations,    172 
Drilling     private     fire      com- 
panies,  76 


INDEX 


347 


Drills,  and  inspections  in  vol- 
unteer  departments,   53 
for   employes,   86,   90 
Drivers,   duties  of,   185 
Driving  to  fires,  186 
Dry     pipe    sprinkler    systems, 

125 

Duties  of  bureaus  of  fire  pre- 
vention,  274 
of  fire  inspectors,   276 
of  fire  marshals,  285 
of  truck  companies,   188 
Dwelling    construction,     false 

economy,   16 
Dwellings,   fire   retardants   in, 

35 
fire-resistant     vs.      wooden, 

18-19 
improper  materials  used  in, 

15 

standpipes  m,  35 
treatment   of    incipient   fires 

in,  33-35 
Wired    glass    windows    for, 

36 


Economy    of     sprinkler     sys- 
tems, 118 
Elevators,      fire-proofing,     72; 

as  danger  points,  145 
Electric  fires,  198 

wiring    for    private   houses, 

25 
wiring,  regulation  of,  330 

Elimination   of  wood   in   high 

buildings,  268,  271 
Ellsworth  Zouaves,  204 
Engine   company  tools,    179 
house,   routine   duties,   51-52 
tenders,  175 

Engineers,    duties    of    in    pri- 
vate  departments,    78 
Engines     for    fire-boats,    237, 

243 
pumping,  174 


England,  fire  loss  per  capita,  4 
Epidemics  of  arson,  302 
Equipment   for  fire-boats,   252 
Equitable   building   fire,   265 
Ericson,  Capt.  John,  207 
European   fire   departments,   6 
fire  investigations,  6,  287 
vs.   American   building  con- 
struction in  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, 45 

Exit  facilities  in  large  build- 
ings, 96-97,  1 06 
Explosives,    storing    and   han- 
dling, 325 
Extinguishers     for    dwellings, 

33 

for  factories,   72 
Extinguishing    fires    in    dwell- 
ings, 33-35 

oily  fires,  34 


F 


Factory  employes,  drilling,   13 
fire  protection,  f  69-83 

Fatalities,  causes  "of,  85 

Feeble-minded   incendaries,  306 

Feed   pipes   of   sprinkler   sys- 
tems,  124 

Fees  of  Underwriters'  Labor- 
atories, 316 

Fighting  chimney  fires,  199 
fires,  height  limit,  262 
fires  with  a  fire-boat,  256 
fires  without  water,  197-198 
oil  fires,  199 

Fire  alarm  boxes,  58 
alarm  boxes  in   New  York 

City,  209 

alarm  devices,  133 
alarm  systems,  50-51 
alarm      systems      of      New 

York,    156 

alarm  systems,  wiring,  59 
alarm,  telephone  as,  37 
alarms,    automatic,    133-148 
alarms,  manual,  138-148 


348' 


INDEX 


Fire    alarms    transmitted    by 
sprinkler  systems,    130 

alarms,     promptness     neces- 
sary in  sending  in,  40 

alarms,  public  boxes,  58 

and  steel  construction,  268 

apparatus,  evolution  of,  42 

^apparatus   for  city,   174 
Fire-boats,  235-259 

company  quarters,  253 

cost  of  maintenance,  258 

designing,  237 

docks   for,  252 

construction  of,  239-24* 

equipment,  252 

hose  for,  250 

lighting  plants  for,  245 

pumps  for,  242,  244,  246 

routine  on,  254 

steering  mechanism,   245 
Fire    causes    in     New     York 
City,   statistics,  29 

companies,    assignments    of, 
170 

companies,      knowledge      of 
districts  necessary,  158 

companies,     priate,    drilling, 

engine,  first  in  America,  206 
engine,  first  steam,  207 
engine,    old   hand   type,    208 
engines,  174 
engines,   Philadelphia's  first, 

42 

equipment    for    high    build- 
ings, 264-266 
escapes,  98 

escapes,  futility  of,  IO 
escapes,    tower   pattern,    100 
extinguishers        for        resi- 
dences,  33 

dangers   common  in  factor- 
ies,  107 

department  a  path  to  politi- 
cal  success,   203 
department   control,    162-167 
department,    details    of    or- 
ganisation,  169 


Fire  department  of  New  York 

City,    149-152 
department,  proper  authority 

and  powers,  167 
department  uniforms,   180 
departments,  books  of  rules, 

I59 

departments,     civil     service 
,    in,   153 
departments,     discipline     in, 

160 
departments       for         small 

towns,  38-68 
departments,    personnel    of, 

156 

departments,  private,  73 
departments,    volunteer,    46 
drills,  86,  90 
fighting  methods,  191 
great  historical,  41 
house  registers,  60 
limits  in  New  York  City,  21' 
limits   in    Philadelphia,  21 
losses,    statistics,   3 
marshals,  273-21 
marshals,  duties  of,  285 
marshals,    States    providing 

for,  290 

marshals,   powers   of,   290 
ordinance,     first     American, 

205 

pails  in  residences,  34 
panics,  ^13,  85,  88 
prevention   bureaus,   273-291 
prevention   bureaus,  author- 
ity of,  281 
prevention   bureaus,   politics 

in,   282 

prevention   regulations,  279 
Fireproof  construction,  267 

definition  of,  8 
Fire-resistant   house,    cost    of, 

18 

-resistant  vs.  wooden  dwell- 
ings, 18-19 
-retardant     construction     of 

factories,   72-75 
-retardant    paints,    36 


INDEX 


349 


Fire-retardant  whitewash,   37 
Fire-retardants      in      dwelling 

construction,    35 
Fire  trucks,   175 

walls,  importance  of,  104 
watch  tower  system  abolish- 
ed in  New  York  City,  205 
Fires,  driving  to,  186 

investigating   causes   of,  286 
simultaneous,     methods     of 

handling,  173 
First  American  fire  ordinance, 

205 
fire  alarm  telegraph  system 

in  New  York  City,  210 
fire  engine  in  America,  206 
leather  hose  in  America,  206 
self-propelled     fire     engine, 

208 

steam  fire  engine,  207 
Flues,    defective,   25 
Force  of  New  York  City  fire 

department,   150 
Forcing    doors    and    windows, 

190 
Frankfort,        Germany,        fire 

losses,  5 

France,  fire  loss  per  capita,  4 
Franklin,    Benjamin,   on   fires, 
42;     on     European     con- 
struction,   45 
Frame     buildings,    prohibition 

of,   13 

Fuel   wagons,    178 
Furnace  for  rubbish  disposal, 
30 


Gas  lights  as  origin  of  fires, 

25 
Gasolene,  dangers  from,  28 

fire  engines,  174 
German  fire  loss  per  capita,  4 
Gulick,   James,   204 


H 


Hand  engines,  208 
Headquarters    in    small    cities, 

routine   in,   50-52 
Heads  of  fire  prevention  bur- 
eaus, 283 

Height   of    buildings,    regulat- 
ing, 97 

Height  limit  for  buildings,  260 
Helmets   for  firemen,  198 
High    buildings,    fighting    fire 

in,  261-264 

buildings,  proper  fire  equip- 
ment for,  264-266 
pressure   service   and  insur- 
ance rates,  233 
pressure      system      controls 
three    simultaneous    fires, 
228 

pressure  system  of  Manhat- 
tan, 217 
pressure     system     tests     in 

Manhattan,  225-226 
Hodge's  model  of  fire  engine, 

208 
Hook    and    ladder    companies, 

private,  75 
and  ladder  companies,  tools 

for,  179 
Horses  vs.  motors  as  tractors, 

174 
Hose,  bursted,  194 

first    fire    hose    in    America, 

206 

for  fire-boats,  250 
for  standpipes,   144 
proper  and  improper,  62 
rollers,   194 
stretching  in,   187 
Hot  ashes  origin  of  fires,  26 
Hydrants,  selection  of,  223 


Incendiarism   for  gain,  298 
in  New  York  City,  293 


350 


INDEX 


Incendiarism  incident  in   Chi- 
cago, 303-305 

Incendiary  fire  in  Waterbury, 
Conn.,  308 

Incident     at     a     Westchester 

County  fire,  54 
illustrating     the     value     of 
New  York's  high  pressure 
system,  227 
of  roof  dangers,  195 
of  simultaneous  fires,   173 
of    value    of    sprinkler    sys- 
tem,  114 

Inflammable  liquids  in  homes, 
28 

Insignia  of  rank  in  New  York 
Fire  Department,  183 

Inspection  of  alarm  system,  61 

Inspectors    of    fire   prevention 
bureaus,   276 

Installation    of    high    pressure 
service  in  New  York,  217 
of  thermostats,   134 

Insurance  rates  and  high  pres- 
sure service,  233 

Investigation     of     causes     of 

fires,  286-288 
of  fires  in  Europe,  6 

Ireland,  fire  loss,  per  capita,  4 

Italy,  fire  loss,  per  capita,  4 

K 
Kerosene  lamps,  25 


Labels    of    the    Underwriters' 

Laboratories,  322 
Ladder  lines,    195 
Ladders,   175 
Lamps,  fires   from,  25 
Latta,  A.  B.,  steam  fire  engine 

builder,   207 
Laws  for  fire  prevention,  310- 

340 


Laws     prohibiting     non-safety 

matches,  324 
Lay,   William   L.,   inventor  of 

self-propelled   fire   engine, 

208 

Laying  hose  lines,  187 
Leaves  of  absence,   184 
Lighthouse    Board's     formula 

for    fire-retarding    white- 
wash, 37 
Lighting   plant    for   fire-boats, 

245 
Limiting   height   of   buildings, 

260 

Local    fire   departments,    38-68 
Location  of  alarm  boxes,   58 
of    "  manual '     'type     alarm 

boxes,   138 

of  sprinkler  heads,  121-124 
London  fire  apparatus,  6 
fire  losses,  5 
Times  sketch  of  New  York 

fire   department,    202 
London's  great  fire,  41 
Loft    building,    description    of 

usual  type,  87 
building  fire  protection,   69- 

83 

M 

Maintenance  of  fire-boats,  258 
Manhattan's  fire  alarm  needs, 

213 

high  pressure  system,   217 
Manual  type  fire  alarm  boxes, 

137,   140 
Marking     location     of     alarm 

boxes,  58 

Matches,  fire  dangers  from,  24 
non-safety,     laws     prohibit- 
ing, 324 
Methods  of  fighting  fires,   191 

of   incendiarism,   299-301 
Metropolitan    fire    district    es- 
tablished   in    New    York, 
205 


INDEX 


Military  organisation  of  fire 
departments  168 

Motives  for  incendiarism,  306 

Motor  apparatus  vs.  horse- 
drawn,  48,  174 

Moving  picture  theatres,  fire 
regulations  for,  336 


N 


National  fire  losses,  2 

standard   coupling,   66-67 
Nebraska,  report  of  Fire  Mar- 
shal Randall,  30-33 
New    Orleans    fires    from    de- 
fective flues,  26 
New   York   City   departmental 

control,  162 
fire  alarm  boxes,  209 
fire  alarm  system,  156,  210 
fire  department,   149-152;  in 

1865,  204 
fire   department,  insignia  of 

rank,   183 

fire      department       develop- 
ment and  defects,  201-215 
fire     department     uniforms, 

fire  limits,  21 

first  fire  alarm  telegraph,  210 
incendiarism,  293 
installation  of  high  pressure 

service,  217 
obsolete    fire    alarm    system, 

214 

percentage  of  fires  to  popu- 
lation,  4 
value    of    sprinkler    systems 

in,    114-115 

New  York's  great  fire,  42 
Newark,    N.    J.,    factory    fire, 

107 

Non-smoking,    rules    for,    106 
Notices  to  owners  and  lesses, 

280 
Nozzles,  various  types  of,  191 


Office  building  fire  protection, 
69-83 

Oil  fires,    199 

Oily  fires,  methods  of  extin- 
guishing, 34 

Orders  to  pumping  stations, 
methods  of  transmitting, 
232 

Organisation,  details  of,  169 
of  fire-boats  companies,  253 
of   fire   prevention   bureaus, 

275 

of  New  York  City  fire  de- 
partment, 151 

Organising  private  fire  de- 
partments, 73-79 

Outlets   for  hydrants,  224 

Outside  alarms,  60 

Outward   swinging   doors,  95 

Overhead  wires,  59 

Over-heated    chimneys,   26 


Paid  vs.  volunteer  fire  depart- 
ments,  50 

Paints,  fire-retarding,  36 
Panics  at  loft  fires,  85,  88 
Paris,  fire  losses  in,  5 
Per  capita  fire  losses,  4-5 
Percentage   of   fires   to  popu- 
lation, 4 
Personnel  of  fire  departments, 

156 

Philadelphia  fire  limits,  21 
first  fire  engine  in,  42 
founding     of     Union     Fire 

Company,  44 
wooden  buildings  in,  22 
Pittsburgh,   dwelling  construc- 
tion, 22 

Planning  a  fire-boat,  239 
Politics    and    bureaus    of    fire 
prevention,  282 


352 


INDEX 


and  fire  departments,  203 
Powers    of    fire    departments, 

167 
Precautions    to    be    taken    in 

loft  buildings,  05 
Pressure-regulating  valves,  229 
Pressure  tanks,   127 
Preventive  laws,  310-340 
measures  for  private  houses, 

23-29 

Primitive  fire-fighting  appara- 
tus, 55 

sprinkler   systems,    III 
Private  alarm  systems,  79 
fire     companies,     apparatus 

for,  81 

fire  companies,  drilling,  76 
fire   companies,   relations  to 

public  departments,  82 
fire  departments,  73 
houses,        fire       prevention 

measures  for,  23-29 
salvage  corps,  80 
Protecting  elevator  shafts,  146 
Pumping    stations,    high   pres- 
sure in  Manhattan,  219 
stations,     routine    operation 

of,  231 
Pumps  for  fire-boats,  242,  ^^ 

246 
Pyromaniacs,    294-298 


Q 


Qualifications     for    heads    of 
fire    prevention     bureaus, 
283-285 
of  watchmen,   143 

Quarters    for     fire-boat     com- 
panies,  253 


R 


Randell,  C  A.,  refuse  fur- 
nace, 30 

Reading.  Pa.,  no  wooden 

buildings  in,  22 


Registers  for  fire  houses.  60 
Regulating    height     of     build- 
in  MS.  97 
Regulations     against    rubbish, 

327 

for  collars,  328 
for  electric  wiring.   330 
for  fire  prevention,  279 
for    places     of    amusement, 

336 

for   school   houses,   337 
for  tenement  houses,  335 
Repair  wagons,  178 
Reports  of  Underwriters'  La- 
boratories, 314 
Responding  to  alarms,  ^2,  171, 

185 
Rewards    for   conviction    of 

incendiaries,    309 
Rochester,   causes   of  fires  in, 

26 

Roof  lines.  104 
Routine  for  fire-boats.  254 
Rubber    hose,   64;    first    used, 

206 

Rubbish,  dangers  from,  30 
disposal  system,  30 
in   factories,   106 
regulations  against,   327 
should  be  removed,   13 
the  origin  of  fires,  24 
Rules  for  fire  departments.  150 
Russia,  fire  loss  per  capita,  4 


Saint  Petersburg's  legal  limit 
to  height  of  buildings,  97 

Salvage  corps,  private.  80 

San  Francisco's  great  fire,  42 
wooden  buildings,  22 

Saskatoon,  Canada.  40 

School  houses,  regulations  for, 
337 

Screws,  twin  vs.  single,  for 
fire-boats,  238 

Search  lights,   176 


I  N  I)K  \ 


353 


firCS,    mrllio.1'.   of 

ing,  172 

Sellars    &     I'ollo,  k,    makers    ..I 

first   IMC  li»sr,  206 
Shafts,    elevator,     as    danger 

points,  145 

Shingle  roofs,  dangers  of,   16 
Shutters,  metal,   72 
Siamese  connections,   197 
Singer   building  lire,   269 
Small  house  construction,   17- 

19 

Small   town   fire   departments, 
needs    of,    56;    apparatus 
required,  52-53 
towns,       routine       at      fire 

houses,  50-52 

Smoking    should   be   prohibit- 
ed,  13 
Social    features    of    volunteer 

fire   departments,   46 
Specifications      for      standard 

couplings,  67 

Spiral  chute  fire  escapes,  101 
Spontaneous  combustion,  27 
Sprinkler    heads,    location    of, 

121-124 

systems,   109-132 
systems,  economy  of,   118 
systems,  installation  of,  no, 

120 

systems,  pipes  for,  124 
systems,  primitive,  in 
systems,  the  dry  pipe  type, 

125 
systems,  valuable  service  in 

Rochester  fire,   114 
systems,    water    supply    for, 

128 
Sprinklers  as  fire  alarms,  130 

for  windows,  129 
Stairways,   fireproofing,   73 

size  and  numbers,  96 
Standard  couplings,  65-67 
Standpipes  and  hose,   144 

for  private  dwellings,  35 
States  with  fire  marshal  laws, 
290 


Statistics    of    fire    causes    In 

New  York  City,  ay 
of  fire  IOHCI,  3 

Steam    fire    engine!,    Braith- 
waite's,     207;     Eric; 
207;    Hodge's,   208;   Lat- 
ta's,  208;  Lay's,  209 

miiu:      C;I|,;.MI/       l-,i       f.n 

boats,  242 

Steel  construction,  267 

Steering  mechanism  for  fire- 
boats,  245 

Stovepipes,  dangers  from,  26 

Stretching  in  hose.   187 

Summoning  special  apparatus, 
171 

Supervision  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  320 

System  of  Underwriters'  La- 
boratories, 317 


Tanks  for  water  supply,  127 
Tappers  in  homes  of  chiefs,  61 
Tearing     down     buildings    to 

check  fires,  54 
Tenders,   175 

Tenement  house  laws,  331-335 
Telephone,     use    of    as     fire 

alarm,  38 

Testing  alarm  system,  61 
high     pressure     system     in 

New  York,  225 
hydrants,  223 

station  of  Underwriters'  La- 
boratories, 313 
Theatres,   fire   regulations   or, 

336 

Thermostats,  133 
Time-recording     devices     for 

watchmen,  141-143 
Tools  for  fire  departments,  179 
Toronto  fire  losses,  6 
Tower  type  of  fire  escapes,  100 
Triangle  Waist  Co.  fire,  89 
Truck    companies,    duties    of, 

1 88 


354 


INDEX 


Trucks,  175 

Tweed,  William  M.,  203 

Twin  screws  vs.  single  screws 

for  fire-boats,  238 
Types  of  manual  fire  alarms, 

140 


U 


Underground  wires,  59 

Underwriters'   regulations    for 

sprinkler  heads,    124 
Laboratories,  311-322 
National   Board   and  incen- 
diaries, 308 

Uniforms,    180 

Union    Fire    Company,    Phila- 
delphia, founding  of,  44 

United   States   per   capita   fire 
loss,  4 


Valves  for  hydrants,  224 
pressure-regulating,   229 
Ventilating  burning  buildings, 

189 

cellar  fires,  190 
Volunteer  department  of  New 

York  City  in  1865,  204  ^ 
departments,    drills    and   in- 
spections,  53 

vs.  paid  fire  departments,  50 
fire  departments,  46 

W 

Wagons  for  officers,  177 
Waste  paper  in  residences,  26 


Watch  clocks,  141-143 
Watchmen  for  fire  protection, 

141 

qualifications    for,    143 
Water   damage,    193 

effects    of    on    hot   iron,    or 

steel,    198 
mains,    controlling    pressure 

in,  228 
mains,  high  pressure  in  New 

York,  219-222 
pressure,  controlling,  229 
supply  for  cities,  157 
supply     for     sprinkler     sys- 
tems,  126 
tanks,  127 
towers,    176;    limits    of    for 

effective  work,  261 
walls,  200 

when  not  to  use,  197-198 
Waterbury     incendiary      fires, 

308 

Wax  tapers,  dangers  from,  25 
Westchester  County  fire,  inci- 
dent at,  54 

Whinery,  C.  C,  sketch  of  New 
York  fire  department,  202 
Whitewash,   fire   retardant,   37 
Window  sprinklers,  129 
Windows,   forcing,   190 
Wired  glass  windows,  35 
Wiring   fire   houses,   60 

for  fire  alarm  system,  59 
Wires,  overhead,   59 
Wooden  buildings  in  Chicago, 
22;   in   Pittsburgh,  22;   in 
San     Francisco,     22;     in 
Reading,  22 


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